Religious Movements of 15th and 16th Century CE notes for OPSC OAS and UPSC cover the Bhakti and Sufi movements that reshaped Indian society and spirituality. This page explains the philosophical foundations of Bhakti, the Nirguna and Saguna streams, every major saint with their works and doctrines, the Sufi Silsilas and their practices, and the Odisha-specific Panchasakha and Satyapir traditions that examiners repeatedly test.
Bhakti Movement 15th-16th Century: Revival, Meaning and Two Streams
The Bhakti movement witnessed a powerful revival in India during the 15th-16th century CE, though its roots go back to the Alvars and Nayanars of South India (7th-10th century CE). The movement emphasised devotion (bhakti) as the path to salvation, rejecting caste, ritual and priestly mediation.UPPSC 1993
Bhakti means loving devotion to a personal God. The 15th-16th century movement made devotion accessible to all, using vernacular languages and rejecting the monopoly of Sanskrit and Brahmins.
Nirguna and Saguna Bhakti: The Core Difference
| Stream | Nature of God | Key Saints | Core Beliefs |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nirguna | Formless, without attributes | Kabir, Guru Nanak, Dadu Dayal, Ravidas, Namdev | Rejected idol worship, pilgrimage, caste and ritual; emphasised inner realization and Jnana. |
| Saguna | God with form (Rama, Krishna) | Tulsidas, Surdas, Mirabai, Chaitanya, Vallabhacharya, Narsi Mehta | Emphasised Prema (love) and worship of incarnations; accepted caste order and Varnashrama dharma. |
The Nirguna saints came largely from lower castes and rejected Brahminical authority, while the Saguna saints relied more on Brahmin leadership and Sanskrit textual authority. A common feature of all Bhakti saints was that they composed their verses in languages understood by their followers.BPSC 2005
- The Bhakti movement did not start in the 15th century; it began with the Alvars and Nayanars in South India in the 7th-10th century. The 15th-16th century was its powerful revival in North India.
- Nirguna saints rejected idol worship and pilgrimage; Saguna saints accepted them.
- The Mahanubhava sect of Maharashtra (13th century) rejected caste and idol worship, and created an order of nuns and monks.Archive source
IMAGE (Flowchart): Flowchart showing the division of the Bhakti movement into Nirguna and Saguna streams with every key saint.
Labels: Bhakti Movement → Nirguna (Kabir, Nanak, Dadu, Ravidas, Namdev) and Saguna (Rama Bhakti: Tulsidas; Krishna Bhakti: Surdas, Mirabai, Chaitanya, Vallabhacharya).
Caption: The two streams of the Bhakti movement and their saints.
Find it: Draw a two-branch flowchart from NCERT Class 7 Our Pasts II, Chapter 8, or use the Drishti IAS Bhakti-Sufi summary.
Philosophical Foundations: Shankaracharya, Ramanuja and the Vedanta Schools
Every Bhakti saint was shaped by earlier philosophers who interpreted the Vedanta in different ways. Examiners match philosophers with their schools.
| Philosopher | Philosophy | Key Facts |
|---|---|---|
| Shankaracharya (788-820 CE) | Advaita Vedanta (monism) | Born in Kaladi, Kerala; established four Mathas at Joshimath (Badrinath), Dwarka, Puri and Sringeri; called 'hidden Buddha' by some thinkers because of similarities with Buddhist philosophy.UPPSC 2006Archive source |
| Ramanujacharya (1017-1137 CE) | Vishishtadvaita (qualified monism) | Followers called Vaishnavites; his philosophy is the basis of the Sri Vaishnava sect; Ramananda was his disciple.UPPSC 1991UPPSC 1999 |
| Madhvacharya (1238-1317 CE) | Dvaita (dualism) | Held that the individual soul (Jiva) and supreme soul (Brahman) are eternally distinct; founded the Brahma Sampradaya.UP UDA/LDA 2001 |
| Vallabhacharya (1479-1531 CE) | Shuddhadvaita (pure non-dualism) | Born at Champaranya (Chhattisgarh); founded Pushtimarg, a Krishna-centred sect.CGPSC 2015UP UDA/LDA 2005 |
| Nimbarkacharya (13th century) | Dvaitadvaita (dualistic non-dualism) | Founded the Sankadi Sampradaya; worshipped Radha and Krishna together. |
Shankaracharya = Advaita; Ramanuja = Vishishtadvaita; Madhva = Dvaita; Vallabhacharya = Shuddhadvaita; Nimbarka = Dvaitadvaita. OPSC and UPSC frequently match philosophers with their schools.
Key Nirguna Bhakti Saints: Ramananda, Kabir, Nanak and Dadu
Ramananda (14th century)
- Born at Prayag; disciple of Ramanujacharya.UPPSC 2010
- First Bhakti saint to use Hindi for his message, making devotion accessible to the common people.IAS (Pre) 2002
- Rejected caste distinctions: his dictum was 'Let no man ask a man's sect or caste'.UPPSC 2009
- Had twelve prominent disciples, including Kabir (a weaver), Ravidas (a cobbler), and women like Padmavati.
Kabir (1398-1518)
- Disciple of Ramananda; a Nirguna saint who rejected both Hindu and Muslim ritualism, pilgrimage and idol worship.UP Lower 2002CDS 2011
- Contemporary of Sikandar Lodi.UPPSC
- Works: Bijak (compiled in Varanasi), Amarmul (dialogues with Dharamdas), Sakhi and Ramaini. His verses are also in the Adi Granth and Kabir Granthavali.MPPSC 2002CDS 2018
- Used Sant Bhasha, a mixed language of the Nirguna mystics.Astt. Comm. 2019
Guru Nanak (1469-1539)
- Born at Nankana Sahib (now in Pakistan); founded Sikhism during the reign of Sikandar Lodi.UPPSC 2007UPPSC 2008
- Taught that God knows virtues, not caste: 'In the next world there is no caste'.RAS/RTS 2010
- His teachings are in the Adi Granth, compiled by Guru Arjan Dev in 1604.UKPSC 2005
- Successors: Guru Angad, Guru Amar Das, Guru Ram Das (founded Amritsar in 1577; received 500 bighas from Akbar), Guru Arjan Dev (compiled Adi Granth; executed by Jahangir in 1606), Guru Hargobind, Guru Har Rai, Guru Har Krishan, Guru Tegh Bahadur (executed by Aurangzeb in 1675), Guru Gobind Singh (founded Khalsa Panth in 1699; born at Patna; died at Nanded in 1708).UPPSC 1996WBCS 2017MPPSC 2014BPSC 2015UPPSC 2002
Dadu Dayal (1544-1603)
- Born at Ahmedabad; founder of the Dadu Panth.UPPSC
- Met Akbar in 1575 and influenced him with his views on tolerance and universal love.UPPSC
Key Saguna Bhakti Saints: Mirabai, Chaitanya, Tulsidas, Surdas and the Regional Traditions
Mirabai (1498-1546)
- Devotee of Krishna; married to Rajkumar Bhojraj of Mewar.RAS/RTS 1997
- Considered Ravidas her Guru; wrote Rag-Govind.CGPSC 2014
- Contemporary of Tulsidas, Chaitanya and Guru Nanak, but not of Ramakrishna Paramahans (19th century).UPPSC
- The common goal of life for both Buddha and Mirabai was the recognition that the world is full of sorrow.RAS/RTS 1992
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486-1534)
- Born at Nadia/Nabadwip, Bengal; popularised Vaishnavism through kirtans and the worship of Radha-Krishna.UPPSC 1990
- Had disciples from both Hindu and Muslim communities.WBPSC 2007
- Spent his later life at Puri, closely associating with the Panchasakha and establishing the Bhaaba-Mishrita Naama Marga (path of chanting the holy name with feeling and faith).Odisha Review 2014
Sankardev (1449-1568)
- Popularised Vaishnavism in Kamrupa (Assam); founded the Ekasarana sect.UPPSC 2002
- Introduced Ankia Naat, Sattriya dance and Brajavali; established satras (Vaishnavite monasteries).UPPSC 2015
Tulsidas (1532-1623)
- Contemporary of Akbar and Jahangir; wrote Ramcharitmanas in Awadhi.UPPSC 2004UK UDA/LDA 2007
- Works include Gitavali, Kavitavali, Vinay Patrika and Dohavali. Sahitya Ratna is not his work.CGPSC 2018MPPSC 2014
Surdas (1478-1581)
- Blind saint-poet of Krishna; wrote Sur Sagar, Sur Saravali and Sahitya Lahiri. Gitavali is by Tulsidas, not Surdas.CDS 2015
- Raised the status of Braj Bhasha to a literary language.
Maharashtra: Varkari, Mahanubhava and Other Sects
- Dnyaneshwar wrote Dnyaneshwari and Amrutanubhav, the oldest Marathi literary works.
- Namdev was a Varkari saint influenced by Islam.UP UDA/LDA 2010
- Tukaram composed Abhangas; contemporary of Jahangir.IAS (Pre) 2006
- Ramdas was Shivaji's guru and founded the Samarth sect; wrote Dasbodh.MPPSC 2013
- The seat of the Warkari tradition is at Pandharpur.RAS/RTS 2008
- Chakradhar founded the Mahanubhava Sampradaya (13th century), which rejected caste and idol worship.IAS (Pre) 2010Archive source
Sufi Movement: Silsilas, Key Concepts and Saints
Sufism is the mystical dimension of Islam. It originated in Persia and spread to India, emphasising love, devotion and an inner path to God.SSC 2013
Key Sufi Concepts
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Pir/Sheikh | Sufi teacher |
| Murid | Disciple |
| Khalifah | Successor nominated by the Pir |
| Khanqah | Hospice of Sufis |
| Dargah | Shrine of a Sufi saint |
| Silsila | Spiritual genealogy linking master and disciple to the Prophet |
| Sama | Devotional music (embraced by Chishtis, opposed by Suhrawardis and Naqshbandis) |
| Ziyarat | Pilgrimage to a Sufi tomb |
Major Sufi Orders (Silsilas)
| Order | Founder in India | Key Features |
|---|---|---|
| Chishti | Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti (Ajmer, 12th century) | Most influential order in India; embraced Sama (music); saints: Baba Farid, Nizamuddin Auliya, Nasiruddin Chirag-e-Delhi.UPPSC 2014 |
| Suhrawardi | Shihabuddin Suhrawardi | More orthodox; against music; saint Bahauddin Zakariya (Multan).BPSC 2018 |
| Naqshbandi | Bahauddin Naqshband | Strict and orthodox; against music; Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Mujaddid Alf-e-Shani).UPPSC 1998 |
| Qadiri | Sheikh Abdul Jilani | Emphasised poverty and devotion; Mian Mir was a Qadiri saint.RAS/RTS 2016 |
| Firdausi | Sheikh Badruddin | Centred in Bihar.BPSC 2003 |
Key Sufi Saints and Their Titles
| Saint | Title/Place |
|---|---|
| Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti | Ajmer; introduced Sama in India; came during Prithviraj Chauhan's reign; disciple of Khwaja Usman Harooni.RAS/RTS 2003 |
| Baba Farid (Fariduddin Ganj-i-Shakar) | Verses in Adi Granth; guru of Nizamuddin Auliya.UPPSC 1994 |
| Nizamuddin Auliya | Mehboob-E-Ilahi; saw seven Sultans; refused audience to Jalaluddin Khilji; dargah in Delhi.UPPSC 2014BPSC 2001 |
| Nasiruddin Mahmud | Chirag-e-Delhi; successor of Nizamuddin Auliya.UPRO/ARO 2017 |
| Sheikh Salim Chishti | Sheikh-ul-Hind; lived in Fatehpur Sikri; blessed Akbar with a son.UP Lower 2008 |
| Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi | Mujaddid Alf-e-Shani; Naqshbandi; associated with Sirhind, not Multan.UPPSC 2020 |
- The Chishti order is named after a village in Afghanistan, not Ajmer.IAS (Pre) 1997
- Sheikh Abdul Jilani belonged to the Qadiri order, not Chishti.RAS/RTS 2016
- Sheikh Bahauddin Zakariya was a Suhrawardi saint, not Chishti.NDA 2017
- The Suhrawardi and Naqshbandi orders were against music; the Chishti order embraced it.
- Ulema (orthodox scholars) were not related to Sufism; they often opposed Sufi practices.UPPSC 2014
Odisha Angle: Panchasakha, Utkaliya Vaishnavism and the Satyapir Tradition
Odisha produced a distinctive Bhakti movement centred on Lord Jagannath of Puri and a syncretic Sufi tradition that produced the Satyapir cult.
The Panchasakha (Five Friends)
The Panchasakha were five saint-poets who lived between roughly 1450 and 1550 CE and enriched Odia spiritual literature: Balarama Das, Jagannatha Das, Achyutananda Das, Ananta Das and Jasobanta Das.Odisha Review 2014Archive source
- They accepted Shri Chaitanya as their Guru and worshipped Lord Jagannath. Chaitanya called them Pancha Atma (five souls) and said they were in no way lesser than avatars of Vishnu.Odisha Review 2014
- Their school of thought is called Ukaliya Vaishnavism (Utkaliya Vaishnavism).Odisha Review 2014
- Jagannatha Das translated the Bhagavata into Odia (the Odia Bhagabata), which became a revered text in every Odia household. Chaitanya honoured him with the title Atibadi.Archive source
- Balarama Das wrote the Jagamohana Ramayana and Lakshmi Purana, championing the cause of Shudras.Archive source
- Achyutananda Das was the most prolific writer; his works include Shunya Samhita, Jnanapradipa Geeta, Harivamsha Purana and Kaliyuga Geeta. He was born at Tilakona to Dinabandhu Khuntia and Padma Devi.Archive source
- Ananta Das wrote Gupta Tika; Jasobanta Das wrote Prema Bhakta Brahma Gita.Archive source
- The Panchasakha challenged caste discrimination and ritualism, aiming at a society based on equality and justice. They preached that Krishna/Jagannath could be worshipped as Shunya (void).Archive source
The Panchasakha are often called the five comrades of Odia literature. Their philosophy combines Nirguna and Saguna elements: they used the form of Jagannath for devotion but ultimately aimed at the formless Supreme Light (Jyoti).
Sufism and the Satyapir Tradition in Odisha
Sufism gained popularity in Odisha and led to the emergence of the Satyapir tradition, a syncretic cult where Hindus worship Satyanarayan and Muslims worship Pir together.Odisha Review 2015
- The Kaipadar shrine near Khordha is the most famous Pir shrine in Odisha, associated with Bukhari Baba (Sayed Jalaluddin Bukhari).Odisha Review 2015
- At Kaipadar, the Prasad maker must be a Hindu, and both Hindus and Muslims visit the shrine. The Khadim prays in Urdu and blesses devotees with peacock feathers.Odisha Review 2015
- During Bhoga, a big drum is beaten, which is prohibited in other Muslim rituals. On the 24th day of Ramzan, the Khadim sprinkles rose water on Baba's Samadhi while Hindus chant Haribol and Muslims say Allah-Akbar. Hindus perform Nam Sankirtan and Muslims recite the Quran and organise Qawwalis.Odisha Review 2015
- Other Sufi shrines revered by both communities include the Sayed Ali Bukhari shrine in Cuttack and the Makhdum Jahanganst shrine near Astarang.Shodhganga source
- Odisha's permanent relationship with Muslims began only in 1568 when Kalapahar, the general of the Afghan ruler of Bengal, defeated Mukunda Deva, the last independent Hindu king of Odisha. The Mughals replaced the Afghans in 1578.Odisha Review 2015
- The Raja of Khordha, Ram Chandra Deva II, embraced Islam but was still allowed to perform ritual services to Jagannath, as recorded in the Madalapanji.Odisha Review 2015
The Satyapir tradition is a living example of Hindu-Muslim synthesis in Odisha. The Kaipadar shrine, where a Hindu prepares the Prasad and a Muslim Khadim performs the rituals, shows how Sufi and Bhakti traditions interacted at the popular level, breaking communal barriers.
IMAGE (Map): Map of Odisha showing key Bhakti and Sufi sites.
Labels: Puri (Jagannath Temple, Chaitanya's later life), Cuttack (Sayed Ali Bukhari shrine), Kaipadar near Khordha (Bukhari Baba Pir shrine), Astarang (Makhdum Jahanganst shrine), and the coastal trade routes.
Caption: Bhakti and Sufi sacred sites in Odisha.
Find it: Draw an outline map of Odisha and mark these locations; use Odisha Review articles on Sufism for reference.
Practice Questions on Religious Movements of 15th-16th Century for OPSC OAS
The Bhakti culture was reborn in India during the:
- Vedic age
- 10th Century AD
- 12th Century AD
- 15th-16th Century AD
Show answer
(d) — The Bhakti movement witnessed a powerful revival in the 15th-16th century CE. UPPSC 1993
Who among the following was the first Bhakti Saint to use Hindi for the propagation of his message?
- Dadu
- Kabir
- Ramananda
- Tulsidas
Show answer
(c) — Ramananda was the first to use Hindi for his message. IAS (Pre) 2002
Which among the following Sikh Gurus instituted the Khalsa Panth?
- Guru Gobind Singh
- Guru Tegh Bahadur
- Guru Arjan Dev
- Guru Nanak Dev
Show answer
(a) — Guru Gobind Singh instituted the Khalsa Panth in 1699 CE. MPPSC 2014
Which Sufi Saint was called 'Mehboob-E-Ilahi'?
- Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti
- Baba Farid
- Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki
- Sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya
Show answer
(d) — Sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya was called Mehboob-E-Ilahi. UPPSC 2014
The Panchasakha of Odisha accepted which saint as their Guru?
- Ramananda
- Kabir
- Shri Chaitanya
- Sankardev
Show answer
(c) — The Panchasakha accepted Shri Chaitanya as their Guru, as recorded in the Madalapanji and their works. Odisha Review 2014
Consider the following statements about the Panchasakha of Odisha:
- Jagannatha Das translated the Bhagavata into Odia.
- Balarama Das wrote the Jagamohana Ramayana.
- The Panchasakha rejected caste discrimination and ritualism.
How many of the statements given above are correct?
- Only one
- Only two
- All three
- None
Show answer
(c) — All three statements about the Panchasakha are correct. Archive source
The Satyapir tradition of Odisha is an example of:
- Conflict between Hindus and Muslims
- Synthesis of Sufism and Hinduism
- Buddhist influence on Islam
- Tribal resistance to Islam
Show answer
(b) — The Satyapir tradition, where Hindus worship Satyanarayan and Muslims worship Pir together, is an example of the synthesis of Sufism and Hinduism. Odisha Review 2015