The Big Questions
Q1. Why is the period that followed the Maurya empire sometimes called the ‘Age of Reorganisation’?
Answer:
This period is called the 'Age of Reorganisation' because after the decline of the Maurya empire, the existing regions were reorganised into new kingdoms. These new kingdoms were constantly competing to become powerful. The map of India changed significantly during this time, as did people's lives.
Q2. What were the values or principles that guided emperors of that period?
Answer:
The emperors of this period were guided by values such as respecting all schools of thought (sects), extending protection to all religious and philosophical traditions, and performing benevolent works for the welfare of their people. Rulers like Kharavela took pride in being a 'respecter of every sect and repairer of every temple', showing a fundamental part of what is called the 'Indian ethos'.
Q3. How did foreign invaders assimilate into Indian society and contribute to cultural confluence?
Answer:
Foreign invaders such as the Indo-Greeks, Shakas, and Kushanas assimilated into Indian society by establishing dynasties and adopting local customs and practices. They contributed to cultural confluence through exchanges in art, architecture, and trade. For example, artwork from this period shows Greek warriors depicted on Indian pillars, and coins from various dynasties show a blend of different cultural influences, contributing to the rich tapestry of Indian culture.
LET’S EXPLORE
Q1. Create a timeline on a sheet of paper marking the period from the first year of the 2nd century BCE and ending in the last year of the 3rd century CE. How many years does this period cover? As we progress through the chapter, mark the key individuals, kingdoms and events on the timeline.
Answer:
The period from the first year of the 2nd century BCE to the last year of the 3rd century CE covers 500 years. The 2nd century BCE starts at 199 BCE and goes to 100 BCE. The 3rd century CE ends at 300 CE. So from 199 BCE to 300 CE (including the transition from BCE to CE) is (199 + 300) = 499 years. However, since it includes both endpoints exactly, the full period is 500 years. Students should create a timeline on a sheet of paper marking these 500 years and add key individuals (e.g., Pushyamitra Shunga, Kharavela, Gautamiputra Satakarni), kingdoms (e.g., Shungas, Satavahanas, Chedis, Cheras, Cholas, Pandyas, Indo-Greeks), and events (e.g., assassination of last Maurya emperor, performance of ashvamedha yajña by Pushyamitra, Kharavela’s reign) as they study the chapter.
Q2. In the previous chapter, you studied the map of the Maurya empire (see page 100). Above is a map of the post-Maurya period. How many kingdoms can you count in the area that were previously under the control of the Maurya empire?
Answer:
Based on the map (Fig. 6.2) and the names provided (Shungas, Chedis, Satavahanas, Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas, Indo-Greeks, Shakas, Kushanas), the kingdoms that emerged in the area previously under Maurya control include: Shungas, Chedis, Satavahanas, Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas, and the Indo-Greek kingdoms. The Shakas and Kushanas entered from outside the subcontinent but also controlled areas that were part of the Maurya empire. A reasonable count would be at least 7-9 distinct kingdoms or dynasties in that area.
Q3. Below is a panel from the Bharhut Stupa. Look at the two figures on the right. What are they doing? Can you guess their profession? Notice their attire. What does this tell us about them? List other details that you notice in the panel and discuss your findings in class.
Answer:
Students should observe the panel (Fig. 6.7). The two figures on the right appear to be engaged in some activity - likely dancing or performing. Their profession could be that of dancers or performers. Their attire seems to be elaborate, possibly indicating they are entertainers or of a certain social status. Other details that can be noticed include: other figures in the panel, the setting (perhaps a royal court or a celebration), the type of clothing, jewellery, musical instruments if any, and the overall composition. Students are to discuss their observations in class, noting how art provides insights into the lifestyle, clothing, and professions of people during that period.
Q4. Look closely at the pictures in the collage in Fig 6.6 (on the previous page). In a note, write down your observations on the clothes, the jewellery, and other objects of daily use.
Answer:
Observations from Fig. 6.6 collage: Clothes: People are depicted wearing draped garments, likely dhotis and upper garments for men; women wear saris-like draped cloths. Some figures have elaborate headdresses or turbans. Jewellery: There are necklaces, earrings, armlets, anklets, and hair ornaments. Men and women both wear jewellery. Bangles (bronze covered with thin gold) and ivory combs show the use of different materials. Objects of daily use: Vases, fans, mirrors, combs, beads of necklaces. A vase indicates vessels for storage or decoration. A woman with a fan shows a lifestyle accessory. The terracotta figures show both male and female figures with detailed hairstyles. These items suggest a society that valued art, adornment, and had skilled craftsmanship in metal, ivory, and terracotta.
THINK ABOUT IT
Q1. What, according to you, could the tradition of using the mother’s name at the beginning of a king’s name signify?
Answer:
The tradition of using the mother's name at the beginning of a king's name (e.g., Gautamiputra Satakarni meaning 'son of Gautami') could signify the high status and influence of royal women in the Satavahana kingdom. It indicates that the mother's lineage was considered important and that queens had significant power and respect. This tradition also shows that women could be powerful figures in their own right, as seen in the example of Queen Gautami Balashri who donated land and had inscriptions made.
Q2. In the above series of numerals, which ones look somewhat like our modern numerals? Which ones don’t?
Answer:
From the Brahmi numerals shown in the text (with shapes resembling some modern numerals), students should identify: Numerals that look somewhat like modern ones: The numeral for 1 (a straight line), 2 (two parallel lines), and 3 (three parallel lines) have some resemblance. Also, the numeral for 5 may have some similarity. Numerals that don't look like modern ones: The numerals for 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 0 (if shown) may look different from our modern Devanagari or Arabic numerals. Students should compare the shapes shown and discuss how numeral systems evolved over time.
Q3. This sculpture of a yaksha from Pitalkhora carries an inscription on its hand, kanhadāsena hiramakarena kāraṃ meaning ‘made by Kanahadasa, a goldsmith’. Is it not interesting to see that a goldsmith could also craft a sculpture made of stone? What do you think this tells us about people’s professions at the time?
Answer:
This tells us that professions were not strictly limited or specialised in the way they might be today. A goldsmith (who typically works with metal) could also be skilled in stone carving. This suggests that artisans and craftspeople had multiple skills and were versatile in their trades. It also indicates that there was a high level of artistic skill and craftsmanship among people of various professions, and that the boundaries between different crafts were flexible. People learned and practiced multiple arts, contributing to the rich artistic heritage of the period.
Q4. Notice the regularity of the rock-cut chambers sculpted nearly two millennia ago. How did artisans achieve such precision with just a chisel and a hammer? Picture yourself as a sculptor in that era, shaping stone into art with your own hands. What tools would you use?
Answer:
Artisans achieved such precision through years of training, patience, and skill. They likely used a variety of chisels of different sizes and shapes (flat, pointed, curved), hammers (stone or metal), and possibly measuring tools like plumb lines and string to ensure symmetry and alignment. They would have worked systematically, first rough-cutting the rock, then gradually refining details. As a sculptor in that era, I would use: a heavy hammer for rough shaping, smaller hammers and chisels for detailed carving, a pointed chisel for outlining, a flat chisel for smoothing surfaces, a drill (bow drill or hand drill) for creating holes, abrasive materials (sand or crushed stone) for polishing, and water to soften the rock and reduce dust. The precision came from careful planning, marking guidelines on the rock, and the skilled hands of master craftsmen who passed down techniques through generations.
Think About It
Q1. Notice the regularity of the rock-cut chambers sculpted nearly two millennia ago. How did artisans achieve such precision with just a chisel and a hammer? Picture yourself as a sculptor in that era, shaping stone into art with your own hands. What tools would you use?
Answer:
Artisans achieved precision through years of practice, careful planning, and skill. They likely used a variety of chisels (straight, curved, toothed), hammers (stone or metal), and measuring tools (strings, plumb lines, compasses). They might have marked guidelines on the rock surface before carving. As a sculptor, you would use a pointed chisel for rough shaping, a flat chisel for smoothing, and a hammer to strike. Water could be used to soften the stone slightly.
Q2. In the map given on next page, you may notice different symbols alongside the names of the kingdoms. What do these symbols represent? Think about how they highlight the unique identities of the kingdoms.
Answer:
The symbols alongside the names of the kingdoms likely represent emblems or royal insignia unique to each dynasty. For example, the Chera kingdom's emblem was the bow and arrow, the Chola kingdom's emblem was the tiger, and the Pandya kingdom's emblem was the fish. These symbols highlight the unique identity and pride of each kingdom, helping to distinguish them in maps and records.
Q3. Observe the statue of the king. How is he depicted? What do his posture, clothing, and expression say about his power and status?
Answer:
The statue of King Karikala depicts him in a standing posture, wearing royal attire and a crown. His confident stance and stern expression convey authority, strength, and dignity. The elaborate clothing and ornaments indicate his high status and wealth. The posture suggests he is a capable and assertive ruler, projecting power and control over his kingdom.
Q4. Have you ever wondered how historians uncover the trade relations between two distant kingdoms many centuries ago? Let’s take a moment to brainstorm and discuss how this information comes to light.
Answer:
Historians uncover trade relations through various sources: (1) Archaeological evidence like coins, pottery, and artifacts found in different regions. (2) Literary sources such as Sangam poems mentioning foreign traders and goods. (3) Inscriptions on pillars and rocks detailing trade agreements or gifts. (4) Foreign accounts from travelers like Megasthenes or Roman writers. (5) Trade routes mapped through findings of goods like spices, pearls, and textiles in distant lands.
Q5. The Pandya kingdom was known for its pearls. Why do you think pearls were an important article of trade during these times?
Answer:
Pearls were important because they were rare, valuable, and highly prized as luxury items. They were used for jewelry, ornaments, and as symbols of wealth and status. Pearls from the Pandya coast were famous for their quality and were in high demand in foreign markets like Rome and West Asia. Their trade brought significant revenue and strengthened the kingdom's economy and international connections.
Q6. Do you know where Gandhara is? Does it remind you of a character from the epic Mahabharata?
Answer:
Gandhara was an ancient region located in present-day northwestern Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan. It reminds us of the character Gandhari from the Mahabharata, who was the princess of Gandhara and the wife of King Dhritarashtra. The region was also known for its unique art style blending Indian and Greek influences.
Let's Explore
Q1. What do you think might have been the meaning of having deities like Vasudeva-Krishna or Lakshmi on some Indo-Greek coins?
Answer:
Having Indian deities like Vasudeva-Krishna and Lakshmi on Indo-Greek coins shows that the rulers respected and adopted local beliefs to gain acceptance among the Indian population. It indicates cultural assimilation and the blending of Greek and Indian traditions. It also helped in legitimizing their rule by associating themselves with popular gods, thereby appealing to the religious sentiments of their subjects.
Q2. Carefully observe this massive statue (1.85 m high) and notice the clothing, weapon, and footwear. What does it tell us about this figure?
Answer:
The statue of King Kanishka shows him wearing a long coat, trousers, and boots – Central Asian clothing. He holds a sword and a mace, indicating his warrior status. The heavy footwear and attire suggest he was from a colder region (Central Asia). The posture and regal stance convey authority and power. The inscription calls him 'King of Kings, Son of God,' showing his divine status and absolute rule.
Q3. Observe the coins carefully. Who, besides the emperor, appears on the coin?
Answer:
On Kanishka's coins, besides the emperor, the Buddha appears on one coin (with inscription BOΔΔO in Greek script) and Lord Shiva with the bull Nandi appears on another coin.
Q4. Why would a powerful ruler feature Buddha and Shiva on his coins? What does it say about his values and priorities? Can you find modern examples of such symbolic currency?
Answer:
Featuring Buddha and Shiva shows Kanishka's respect for both Buddhism and Hinduism, indicating religious tolerance and the desire to unify diverse communities under his rule. It reflects his priority of maintaining peace and harmony among different faiths. Modern examples include Indian currency featuring symbols of multiple religions (like the Ashoka Chakra, which represents dharma) or coins/notes from countries that include national symbols representing unity in diversity.
Q5. Now that you are familiar with the basic characteristics of the Mathura and Gandhara styles of art, study the pictures of artefacts given in Fig. 6.27 on the right page and try to identify which school of art each artefact belongs to. Write your observations with justifications and discuss your answers with your classmates.
Answer:
This is an activity requiring visual observation. Students should note: Gandhara style uses grey-black schist, shows realistic anatomy, flowing robes, and Greco-Roman features. Mathura style uses red sandstone, shows fuller figures, smooth modelling, and Indian deities. Students must look at the pictures in the textbook and describe material, style, and features to justify their identification.
Don't Miss Out
Q1. What is the Shaka Samvat calendar? When was it developed and adopted as the Indian National Calendar?
Answer:
The Shaka Samvat calendar was developed during the rule of the Shakas (Indo-Scythians) from the latter part of the 2nd century BCE. It is 78 years behind the Gregorian calendar (except from January–March, when it is behind by 79 years). It was adopted as the Indian National Calendar in 1957.