The Big Questions
Q1. Why are the 11th and 12th centuries seen as a period of transition in Indian history?
Answer:
The 11th and 12th centuries are seen as a period of transition because this era witnessed significant changes in the political landscape of India. Turkic invasions, led by powers like the Ghaznavids, penetrated much deeper into north India compared to earlier Arab incursions. This period also saw the decline of older dynasties like the Hindu Shahis and the rise of new powers, such as the Ghaznavids and Ghurids, who established sultanates. Additionally, despite invasions, Indian rulers like the Cholas flourished, conducting naval expeditions and creating monumental architecture. Thus, it was a time of both destruction and cultural achievement, marking a shift towards new political and cultural influences.
Q2. Which new powers emerged during this period? What were the essential features of their economic, military and administrative systems?
Answer:
New powers that emerged during the 11th and 12th centuries included the Ghaznavids, Ghurids, Chandellas, Chahamanas (Chauhans), Paramaras, Kalachuris, Eastern Gangas, Sena dynasty, and the Kakatiyas. Essential features of their systems: Economic: Temples often held immense wealth from offerings, making them targets for plunder by invaders. Local economies were based on agriculture, trade, and temple patronage. Military: Armies included cavalry with archers on horseback, rapid marches, and elephant corps. The Ghaznavids used daring cavalry attacks. Administrative: Rulers assumed titles like 'sultan' (meaning authority). Some dynasties maintained feudal structures with local chiefs. The Ghaznavids did not establish a permanent base beyond Punjab initially.
Q3. What high accomplishments in art, architecture, literature, science, etc., do we come across during this period?
Answer:
High accomplishments include: Art and Architecture: Construction of magnificent temples like the Lakshmana Temple at Khajuraho with bas-reliefs, the Angkor Wat temple in Cambodia (12th century), and the Somnath temple (though destroyed). Literature: The works of Persian scholar al-Biruni who wrote an encyclopedic survey of Indian culture and translated Patanjali's Yogasutras. Bhaskaracharya composed Līlāvatī (mathematical riddles), Bījagaṇita (algebra), and Siddhāntaśiromaṇi (astronomy). Science: Bhaskaracharya's pioneering mathematical and astronomical works, which influenced later scholars. Al-Biruni studied Indian sciences and compared them with Greek and Islamic traditions.
Think About It
Q1. What conclusions can we draw from this remark by someone in Mahmud's entourage? (al-Biruni's remark about the Hindu Shahiya dynasty: 'The Hindu Shāhiya dynasty is now extinct, and of the whole house there is no longer the slightest remnant in existence. We must say that, in all their grandeur, they never slackened in the ardent desire of doing that which is good and right, that they were men of noble sentiment and noble bearing.')
Answer:
From al-Biruni's remark, we can conclude that even an enemy scholar could acknowledge the noble qualities and good governance of a defeated dynasty. It shows that al-Biruni had a sense of fairness and empathy, recognizing the virtues of the Hindu Shahi rulers despite their defeat by Mahmud. This also indicates that not all invaders or their followers were purely hateful; some could appreciate the culture they encountered. It reminds us that historical judgments should be balanced and not solely based on conflict.
Let's Explore
Q1. Observe the sketch of the Khyber Pass (Fig. 4.3). What kind of terrain does it depict? What advantages would it offer to an army trying to reach the Indus plains? But also, what dangers? Thinking of the caravans of traders that passed through the Khyber Pass for many centuries, let's ask the same questions about the advantages as well as dangers.
Answer:
The sketch depicts a narrow, winding pass through steep, mountainous terrain. Advantages for an army: It provides a strategic route through the Hindu Kush mountains, allowing access to the Indus plains from Central Asia. The pass can be defended from the heights. Dangers for an army: The narrow path makes an army vulnerable to ambushes from above; movement is slow and difficult; supply lines can be cut; and the terrain is harsh with limited water and shelter. Advantages for traders: The pass is a key trade route connecting the Subcontinent to Central Asia, enabling exchange of goods, ideas, and cultures. Dangers for traders: They face risks from bandits, difficult terrain, extreme weather, and potential attacks from warring factions.
Q2. In later centuries, the Somanātha temple was rebuilt and destroyed again several times; the existing temple was built in 1950 and inaugurated the next year by the then President of India, Rajendra Prasad. Why do you think it was decided to fund the construction entirely from public donations?
Answer:
Funding the construction entirely from public donations was likely decided to emphasize the temple's significance as a symbol of resilience, faith, and cultural identity for the people. It demonstrated collective effort and devotion, rather than government patronage, making the temple a true monument of public sentiment. Public donations also helped avoid any political controversies over using state funds for a religious structure, and reinforced the idea that the temple belonged to the people.
Don't Miss Out
Q1. Mahmud assumed the title of 'sultan', a word of Arabic origin which means 'authority' or 'power'; in the Muslim world, it came to refer to a sovereign ruler or king. In Grade 8, we will come across sultans who established their kingdoms or 'sultanates' in India, the dominant one being the Delhi Sultanate.
Answer:
This is a note for the reader, not a question. No solution required.
LET'S EXPLORE
Q1. In the painting Fig. 4.14, can you make out who is the king and who is the guru? What does the king's posture and general attitude express?
Answer:
In the painting, the king is Rajendra Chola and the guru is the seated sage. The king's posture (standing with folded hands or bowing) expresses humility, respect, and devotion towards his guru. It shows that even a powerful emperor shows reverence to spiritual teachers.
Q2. Writing some 60 years after Bakhtiyar Khilji's campaign through Bihar, the historian Minhaj al-Siraj Juzjani recorded in his Tabakat-i-Nasiri how Bakhtiyar's forces captured a 'fortress' and 'acquired great booty.' He adds, 'The greater number of the inhabitants of that place were Brahmans, and all those Brahmans had their heads shaven; and they were all slain. There were a great number of books there. ... It was found that the whole of that fortress and city was a college, and in [their] tongue, they call a college bihar.' Remembering the meaning of vihara and noting that Nalanda was known in ancient inscriptions as 'Nalanda Mahavihara', can you find two more clues in the above passage to identify the 'fortress' near the Nalanda university? (Hint: Who do you think these 'Brahmans' actually were?)
Answer:
The two clues are: (1) The inhabitants had shaven heads, which indicates they were Buddhist monks, not Brahmans (as Hindu Brahmins typically keep a tuft of hair). (2) The place was described as a 'college' or 'bihar' (vihara), which refers to a Buddhist monastery. So the 'Brahmans' were actually Buddhist monks, and the 'fortress' was Nalanda Mahavihara, the great Buddhist university.
Exercises
Q1. No exercise questions found in the provided text.
Answer:
N/A