The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

Activity (Sorrieu's Utopian Vision)

Q1. In what way do you think this print (Fig. 1) depicts a utopian vision?

Answer:

The print depicts a utopian vision in the following ways:

• It visualises a world made up of 'democratic and social Republics', an ideal that was unlikely to exist in reality at the time.
• The peoples of Europe and America – men and women of all ages and social classes – are shown marching together in a long train, offering homage to the statue of Liberty. This suggests universal brotherhood and equality.
• The shattered remains of the symbols of absolutist institutions lie on the earth, showing the end of despotic rule.
• Christ, saints, and angels gaze upon the scene from the heavens, symbolising fraternity among the nations of the world.
• At the time Sorrieu created this image (1848), the German peoples did not yet exist as a united nation – the flag they carry expresses liberal hopes to unify the numerous German-speaking principalities into a nation-state.

Thus, the print presents an idealised, harmonious world of democratic nations, which was more a dream than a reality.

Discuss (Ernst Renan – What is a Nation?)

Q1. Summarise the attributes of a nation, as Renan understands them. Why, in his view, are nations important?

Answer:

Attributes of a nation according to Renan:

• A nation is the culmination of a long past of endeavours, sacrifice, and devotion.
• It is based on a heroic past, great men, and glory – this is the social capital upon which a national idea is based.
• It requires common glories in the past, a common will in the present, and having performed great deeds together.
• A nation is a large-scale solidarity, and its existence is a daily plebiscite.
• A nation never has any real interest in annexing or holding on to a country against its will.
• It is not formed merely by a common language, race, religion, or territory.

Why nations are important in his view:

• The existence of nations is a good thing, a necessity even.
• Their existence is a guarantee of liberty, which would be lost if the world had only one law and only one master.

Discuss (Friedrich List – Economic Measures)

Q1. Describe the political ends that List hopes to achieve through economic measures.

Answer:

Friedrich List hopes to achieve the following political ends through economic measures:

• To bind the Germans economically into a nation.
• To strengthen the nation materially by protecting its interests externally and stimulating its internal productivity.
• To awaken and raise national sentiment through a fusion of individual and provincial interests.
• To engender national feeling by establishing a free economic system.

List believed that economic unification through the zollverein (customs union) would help forge a unified German nation.

Discuss (The Club of Thinkers)

Q1. What is the caricaturist trying to depict?

Answer:

The caricaturist is trying to depict the repression of free thought and speech under the conservative regimes established after 1815. The Club of Thinkers is shown with rules that include:

• 'Silence is the first commandment of this learned society.'
• 'To avoid the eventuality whereby a member of this club may succumb to the temptation of speech, muzzles will be distributed to members upon entering.'

The plaque asks: 'The most important question of today's meeting: How long will thinking be allowed to us?' This satirises the censorship laws imposed by autocratic governments that sought to control what was said in newspapers, books, plays, and songs. The caricature highlights the attack on freedom of thought and expression in post-Napoleonic Europe.

Discuss (Language and Popular Traditions)

Q1. Discuss the importance of language and popular traditions in the creation of national identity.

Answer:

Language and popular traditions played a crucial role in the creation of national identity:

• Language: A common language helped unify people across regions, enabling them to communicate, share ideas, and develop a sense of shared identity. After Russian occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools and Russian was imposed everywhere. Polish was used for Church gatherings and all religious instruction, and its use came to be seen as a symbol of the struggle against Russian dominance. Many priests and bishops were put in jail or sent to Siberia for their refusal to preach in Russian.
• Folk songs and poetry: Romantic thinkers like Johann Gottfried Herder claimed that true German culture was to be discovered among the common people – das volk. It was through folk songs, folk poetry, and folk dances that the true spirit of the nation (volksgeist) was popularised.
• Folktales: The Grimm Brothers spent six years travelling from village to village, collecting folktales which they believed were expressions of a pure and authentic German spirit. They saw their projects of collecting folktales and developing the German language as part of the wider effort to oppose French domination and create a German national identity.
• Music and dance: Karol Kurpinski celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music, turning folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols.
• Reaching illiterate audiences: The emphasis on vernacular language and the collection of local folklore was not just to recover an ancient national spirit, but also to carry the modern nationalist message to large audiences who were mostly illiterate.

Discuss (Silesian Weavers' Uprising)

Q1. Describe the cause of the Silesian weavers' uprising. Comment on the viewpoint of the journalist.

Answer:

Cause of the Silesian weavers' uprising:

• In 1845, weavers in Silesia led a revolt against contractors who supplied them raw material and gave them orders for finished textiles but drastically reduced their payments.
• The misery of the workers was extreme. The desperate need for jobs was taken advantage of by the contractors to reduce the prices of the goods they ordered.
• On 4 June at 2 p.m., a large crowd of weavers emerged from their homes and marched in pairs up to the mansion of their contractor demanding higher wages.
• They were treated with scorn and threats alternately. Following this, a group forced their way into the house, smashed window-panes, furniture, and porcelain. Another group broke into the storehouse and plundered it of supplies of cloth which they tore to shreds.
• The contractor fled with his family to a neighbouring village which refused to shelter him. He returned 24 hours later having requisitioned the army. In the exchange that followed, eleven weavers were shot.

Comment on the viewpoint of the journalist:

The journalist Wilhelm Wolff describes the events with sympathy for the weavers. He highlights the extreme misery of the workers and the exploitation by contractors who reduced prices. He presents the weavers' actions as a desperate response to their suffering. However, he also reports the violence of the weavers and the eventual shooting of eleven weavers, showing the brutal suppression of their revolt. His viewpoint reflects an understanding of the economic hardships that led to the uprising.

Activity (Weaver's Report)

Q1. Imagine you are a weaver who saw the events as they unfolded. Write a report on what you saw.

Answer:

Report from a Silesian Weaver

On 4 June 1845, I witnessed the desperate struggle of my fellow weavers in our village. For months, our contractor had been reducing the prices he paid us for the cloth we wove, even though he supplied us with raw material and gave us orders. The misery of the workers is extreme. The desperate need for jobs has been taken advantage of by the contractors to reduce the prices of the goods they order.

At 2 p.m., a large crowd of weavers emerged from their homes and marched in pairs up to the mansion of our contractor demanding higher wages. They were treated with scorn and threats alternately. Following this, a group of them forced their way into the house, smashing its elegant window-panes, furniture, and porcelain. Another group broke into the storehouse and plundered it of supplies of cloth which they tore to shreds.

The contractor fled with his family to a neighbouring village which, however, refused to shelter such a person. He returned 24 hours later having requisitioned the army. In the exchange that followed, eleven weavers were shot. We are left with nothing but our grief and our determination to survive.

Discuss (Women's Rights – Source C)

Q1. How were liberty and equality for women to be defined? Compare the positions on the question of women's rights voiced by the three writers cited above. What do they reveal about liberal ideology?

Answer:

Positions on women's rights voiced by the three writers:

What they reveal about liberal ideology:

• Liberal ideology emphasised freedom and equality, but in practice, it was limited to men, especially propertied men.
• Women were excluded from political rights and reduced to the status of minors, subject to the authority of fathers and husbands.
• The liberal movement was dominated by middle-class men who resisted extending political rights to women.
• Despite this, women actively participated in liberal movements, formed their own political associations, founded newspapers, and took part in political meetings and demonstrations.
• The debate over women's rights reveals the contradictions within liberal ideology, which preached universal freedom but practised exclusion.

Activity (Caricature of Bismarck)

Q1. Describe the caricature. How does it represent the relationship between Bismarck and the elected deputies of Parliament? What interpretation of democratic processes is the artist trying to convey?

Answer:

Description of the caricature:

The caricature shows Otto von Bismarck in the German Reichstag (parliament). The artist depicts Bismarck in a dominant, overbearing position, while the elected deputies appear small and submissive.

Relationship between Bismarck and the elected deputies:

• Bismarck is shown as the powerful figure who dominates the parliament.
• The elected deputies are portrayed as weak and unable to assert their authority.
• The relationship is one of dominance and subordination, reflecting Bismarck's control over the political process.

Interpretation of democratic processes:

The artist is trying to convey that democratic processes in Germany were undermined by the power of the monarchy and the military. Although there was an elected parliament, real power lay with Bismarck and the Prussian state. The caricature suggests that democracy was a facade, and the elected deputies had little real influence over decision-making. It highlights the dominance of Prussian state power in the German unification process.

Activity (Italian Unification Maps)

Q1. Look at Fig. 14(a). Do you think that the people living in any of these regions thought of themselves as Italians? Examine Fig. 14(b). Which was the first region to become a part of unified Italy? Which was the last region to join? In which year did the largest number of states join?

Answer:

Did the people living in these regions think of themselves as Italians?

No, the people living in these regions did not think of themselves as Italians. Italy was divided into seven states, and even the Italian language had not acquired one common form and still had many regional and local variations. Much of the Italian population, among whom rates of illiteracy were very high, remained blissfully unaware of liberal-nationalist ideology. The peasant masses who had supported Garibaldi in southern Italy had never heard of Italia, and believed that 'La Talia' was Victor Emmanuel's wife!

Which was the first region to become a part of unified Italy?

Sardinia-Piedmont was the first region to become a part of unified Italy. It was ruled by an Italian princely house and took the lead in the unification process.

Which was the last region to join?

Rome (the Papal States) was the last region to join unified Italy in 1870, when France withdrew its troops from Rome during the war with Prussia.

In which year did the largest number of states join?

The largest number of states joined in 1860, when Garibaldi marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and succeeded in winning the support of the local peasants to drive out the Spanish rulers.

Activity (Garibaldi Caricature)

Q1. The artist has portrayed Garibaldi as holding on to the base of the boot, so that the King of Sardinia-Piedmont can enter it from the top. Look at the map of Italy once more. What statement is this caricature making?

Answer:

The caricature is making the following statement:

• Garibaldi is shown holding the base of the boot (Italy), while the King of Sardinia-Piedmont enters it from the top.
• This symbolises that Garibaldi and his volunteers (the Red Shirts) did the hard work of conquering and unifying southern Italy, but the political power and the crown went to the King of Sardinia-Piedmont, Victor Emmanuel II.
• The caricature suggests that Garibaldi, despite his military successes and popularity, played a subordinate role to the monarchy in the unification process.
• It highlights the irony that the republican and democratic ideals of Garibaldi were ultimately subordinated to the monarchical ambitions of the House of Savoy.

Activity (Attributes of Germania)

Q1. With the help of the chart in Box 3, identify the attributes of Veit's Germania and interpret the symbolic meaning of the painting. In an earlier allegorical rendering of 1836, Veit had portrayed the Kaiser's crown at the place where he has now located the broken chain. Explain the significance of this change.

Answer:

Attributes of Veit's Germania and their symbolic meaning:

Significance of the change from the Kaiser's crown to the broken chain:

• In the earlier allegorical rendering of 1836, Veit had portrayed the Kaiser's crown, symbolising monarchy and imperial power.
• In the 1848 painting, he replaced the crown with the broken chain, symbolising the end of oppression and the beginning of freedom.
• This change reflects the shift in nationalist sentiment from loyalty to monarchy to a demand for liberal-democratic freedoms and the end of autocratic rule.
• It shows that by 1848, German nationalists were increasingly committed to the ideals of liberty and equality, rather than to the restoration of imperial power.

Activity (The Fallen Germania)

Q1. Describe what you see in Fig. 17. What historical events could Hübner be referring to in this allegorical vision of the nation?

Answer:

Description of Fig. 17 (The Fallen Germania):

The painting shows Germania, the allegory of the German nation, lying fallen and defeated. She appears lifeless or unconscious, with her attributes scattered around her. The scene conveys a sense of despair and defeat.

Historical events Hübner could be referring to:

• The failure of the 1848 revolution and the Frankfurt Parliament. The liberal-nationalist attempt to create a unified German nation-state under a democratic constitution was repressed by the combined forces of the monarchy and the military.
• The rejection of the crown by Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia, and his opposition to the elected assembly.
• The disbanding of the Frankfurt Parliament by troops.
• The suppression of liberal movements in 1848 and the restoration of conservative forces.

The painting is an allegorical vision of the nation's defeat and the disappointment of liberal hopes.

Activity (Germania Guarding the Rhine)

Q1. Look once more at Fig. 10. Imagine you were a citizen of Frankfurt in March 1848 and were present during the proceedings of the parliament. How would you (a) as a man seated in the hall of deputies, and (b) as a woman observing from the galleries, relate to the banner of Germania hanging from the ceiling?

Answer:

(a) As a man seated in the hall of deputies:

• I would see the banner of Germania as a symbol of national unity and the liberal-nationalist struggle for a unified German nation-state.
• I would feel inspired by her attributes – the broken chains (freedom), the sword (readiness to fight), the olive branch (willingness to make peace), and the tricolour flag (liberal-nationalist ideals).
• I would relate to her as a symbol of the democratic and constitutional Germany I am fighting for.
• I would feel proud to be part of the movement to create a nation-state on parliamentary principles.

(b) As a woman observing from the galleries:

• I would see the banner of Germania as a symbol of the nation, but also feel excluded from the political process.
• Women were denied suffrage rights during the election of the Assembly and were admitted only as observers to stand in the visitors' gallery.
• I would feel a sense of solidarity with Germania as a female figure representing the nation, but also frustration that women were not given equal political rights.
• I would hope that the liberal movement would eventually extend its principles of liberty and equality to women as well.
• I would feel inspired by the ideals of freedom and national unity, but also aware of the gap between those ideals and the reality of women's exclusion.

Write in Brief

Q1. Write a note on: a) Guiseppe Mazzini b) Count Camillo de Cavour c) The Greek war of independence d) Frankfurt parliament e) The role of women in nationalist struggles

Answer:

a) Guiseppe Mazzini:

• Born in Genoa in 1805, he became a member of the secret society of the Carbonari.
• As a young man of 26, he was sent into exile in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria.
• He subsequently founded two underground societies: Young Italy in Marseilles and Young Europe in Berne.
• Mazzini believed that God had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind. Italy had to be forged into a single unified republic within a wider alliance of nations.
• Following his model, secret societies were set up in Germany, France, Switzerland, and Poland.
• Metternich described him as 'the most dangerous enemy of our social order'.

b) Count Camillo de Cavour:

• Chief Minister who led the movement to unify the regions of Italy.
• He was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat. Like many other wealthy and educated members of the Italian elite, he spoke French much better than he did Italian.
• Through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France engineered by Cavour, Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859.
• He played a key role in the unification of Italy under King Victor Emmanuel II.

c) The Greek war of independence:

• Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century.
• The growth of revolutionary nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle for independence amongst the Greeks which began in 1821.
• Nationalists in Greece got support from other Greeks living in exile and from many West Europeans who had sympathies for ancient Greek culture.
• Poets and artists lauded Greece as the cradle of European civilisation and mobilised public opinion to support its struggle against a Muslim empire.
• The English poet Lord Byron organised funds and later went to fight in the war, where he died of fever in 1824.
• Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognised Greece as an independent nation.

d) Frankfurt parliament:

• In the German regions, a large number of political associations whose members were middle-class professionals, businessmen, and prosperous artisans came together in the city of Frankfurt and decided to vote for an all-German National Assembly.
• On 18 May 1848, 831 elected representatives marched in a festive procession to take their places in the Frankfurt parliament convened in the Church of St Paul.
• They drafted a constitution for a German nation to be headed by a monarchy subject to a parliament.
• When the deputies offered the crown on these terms to Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia, he rejected it and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly.
• The parliament was dominated by the middle classes who resisted the demands of workers and artisans and consequently lost their support.
• In the end, troops were called in and the assembly was forced to disband.

e) The role of women in nationalist struggles:

• Women had participated actively in liberal movements over the years.
• They had formed their own political associations, founded newspapers, and taken part in political meetings and demonstrations.
• Despite this, they were denied suffrage rights during the election of the Assembly.
• When the Frankfurt parliament convened in the Church of St Paul, women were admitted only as observers to stand in the visitors' gallery.
• Louise Otto-Peters founded a women's journal and subsequently a feminist political association. She argued that Liberty is indivisible and free men must not tolerate being surrounded by the unfree.

Q2. What steps did the French revolutionaries take to create a sense of collective identity among the French people?

Answer:

The French revolutionaries took the following steps to create a sense of collective identity among the French people:

• The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasised the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
• A new French flag, the tricolour, was chosen to replace the former royal standard.
• The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly.
• New hymns were composed, oaths taken, and martyrs commemorated, all in the name of the nation.
• A centralised administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all citizens within its territory.
• Internal customs duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted.
• Regional dialects were discouraged and French, as it was spoken and written in Paris, became the common language of the nation.
• The revolutionaries further declared that it was the mission and destiny of the French nation to liberate the peoples of Europe from despotism.

Q3. Who were Marianne and Germania? What was the importance of the way in which they were portrayed?

Answer:

Marianne:

• Marianne was the female allegory of the French nation.
• In France, she was christened Marianne, a popular Christian name, which underlined the idea of a people's nation.
• Her characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty and the Republic – the red cap, the tricolour, the cockade.
• Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares to remind the public of the national symbol of unity and to persuade them to identify with it.
• Marianne images were marked on coins and stamps.

Germania:

• Germania became the allegory of the German nation.
• In visual representations, Germania wears a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak stands for heroism.
• She is shown with attributes such as broken chains (being freed), a breastplate with eagle (symbol of the German empire – strength), a sword (readiness to fight), an olive branch around the sword (willingness to make peace), the black, red and gold tricolour (flag of the liberal-nationalists in 1848), and rays of the rising sun (beginning of a new era).

Importance of the way they were portrayed:

• They gave the abstract idea of the nation a concrete form, making it easier for people to identify with the nation.
• The female form did not stand for any particular woman in real life; rather it sought to embody the nation's ideals.
• They were used to inspire loyalty, unity, and national pride among the people.
• They were portrayed with specific objects and symbols that conveyed the values and aspirations of the nation.

Q4. Briefly trace the process of German unification.

Answer:

Process of German unification:

1. Liberal initiative of 1848: Nationalist feelings were widespread among middle-class Germans, who in 1848 tried to unite the different regions of the German confederation into a nation-state governed by an elected parliament. This liberal initiative was repressed by the combined forces of the monarchy and the military, supported by the large landowners (Junkers) of Prussia.
2. Prussian leadership: From then on, Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification. Its chief minister, Otto von Bismarck, was the architect of this process carried out with the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy.
3. Three wars: Three wars over seven years – with Austria, Denmark, and France – ended in Prussian victory and completed the process of unification.
4. Proclamation of the German Empire: In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles.
5. Modernisation: The new state placed a strong emphasis on modernising the currency, banking, legal, and judicial systems in Germany. Prussian measures and practices often became a model for the rest of Germany.

Q5. What changes did Napoleon introduce to make the administrative system more efficient in the territories ruled by him?

Answer:

Napoleon introduced the following changes to make the administrative system more efficient in the territories ruled by him:

• The Civil Code of 1804 – usually known as the Napoleonic Code – did away with all privileges based on birth, established equality before the law, and secured the right to property. This Code was exported to the regions under French control.
• In the Dutch Republic, in Switzerland, in Italy, and Germany, Napoleon simplified administrative divisions.
• He abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
• In the towns too, guild restrictions were removed.
• Transport and communication systems were improved.
• Peasants, artisans, workers, and new businessmen enjoyed a new-found freedom.
• Businessmen and small-scale producers of goods began to realise that uniform laws, standardised weights and measures, and a common national currency would facilitate the movement and exchange of goods and capital from one region to another.

Discuss

Q1. Explain what is meant by the 1848 revolution of the liberals. What were the political, social and economic ideas supported by the liberals?

Answer:

1848 revolution of the liberals:

Parallel to the revolts of the poor, unemployed, and starving peasants and workers in many European countries in 1848, a revolution led by the educated middle classes was under way. Events of February 1848 in France had brought about the abdication of the monarch and a republic based on universal male suffrage had been proclaimed. In other parts of Europe where independent nation-states did not yet exist – such as Germany, Italy, Poland, the Austro-Hungarian Empire – men and women of the liberal middle classes combined their demands for constitutionalism with national unification. They took advantage of the growing popular unrest to push their demands for the creation of a nation-state on parliamentary principles – a constitution, freedom of the press, and freedom of association.

Political, social, and economic ideas supported by the liberals:

• Political: Government by consent, end of autocracy and clerical privileges, a constitution, representative government through parliament, freedom of the press, and freedom of association.
• Social: Freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law. However, equality before the law did not necessarily stand for universal suffrage. Women and non-propertied men were excluded from political rights.
• Economic: Freedom of markets and the abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital. They argued for the creation of a unified economic territory allowing the unhindered movement of goods, people, and capital. They also stressed the inviolability of private property.

Q2. Choose three examples to show the contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe.

Answer:

Three examples of the contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe:

1. Romanticism and folk culture: Romantic artists and poets criticised the glorification of reason and science and focused instead on emotions, intuition, and mystical feelings. Their effort was to create a sense of a shared collective heritage, a common cultural past, as the basis of a nation. German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder claimed that true German culture was to be discovered among the common people – das volk. It was through folk songs, folk poetry, and folk dances that the true spirit of the nation (volksgeist) was popularised. Collecting and recording these forms of folk culture was essential to the project of nation-building.
2. The Grimm Brothers and folktales: Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm spent six years travelling from village to village, talking to people and writing down fairy tales which were handed down through the generations. In 1812, they published their first collection of tales. They saw French domination as a threat to German culture and believed that the folktales they had collected were expressions of a pure and authentic German spirit. They considered their projects of collecting folktales and developing the German language as part of the wider effort to oppose French domination and create a German national identity.
3. Music and language in Poland: Even though Poland no longer existed as an independent territory, national feelings were kept alive through music and language. Karol Kurpinski celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music, turning folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols. After Russian occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools and Russian was imposed everywhere. Polish was used for Church gatherings and all religious instruction. The use of Polish came to be seen as a symbol of the struggle against Russian dominance.

Q3. Through a focus on any two countries, explain how nations developed over the nineteenth century.

Answer:

Development of nations in Germany and Italy over the nineteenth century:

Germany:

• Nationalist feelings were widespread among middle-class Germans, who in 1848 tried to unite the different regions of the German confederation into a nation-state governed by an elected parliament. This liberal initiative was repressed by the combined forces of the monarchy and the military, supported by the large landowners (Junkers) of Prussia.
• From then on, Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification. Its chief minister, Otto von Bismarck, was the architect of this process carried out with the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy.
• Three wars over seven years – with Austria, Denmark, and France – ended in Prussian victory and completed the process of unification.
• In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles.
• The new state placed a strong emphasis on modernising the currency, banking, legal, and judicial systems in Germany.

Italy:

• During the middle of the nineteenth century, Italy was divided into seven states. During the 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini had sought to put together a coherent programme for a unitary Italian Republic. He had also formed a secret society called Young Italy.
• The failure of revolutionary uprisings both in 1831 and 1848 meant that the mantle now fell on Sardinia-Piedmont under its ruler King Victor Emmanuel II to unify the Italian states through war.
• Chief Minister Cavour led the movement to unify the regions of Italy. Through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France, Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859.
• Apart from regular troops, a large number of armed volunteers under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi joined the fray. In 1860, they marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and succeeded in winning the support of the local peasants to drive out the Spanish rulers.
• In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy.

Q4. How was the history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe?

Answer:

The history of nationalism in Britain was unlike the rest of Europe in the following ways:

• No sudden upheaval or revolution: In Britain, the formation of the nation-state was not the result of a sudden upheaval or revolution. It was the result of a long-drawn-out process.
• No British nation prior to the eighteenth century: There was no British nation prior to the eighteenth century. The primary identities of the people who inhabited the British Isles were ethnic ones – such as English, Welsh, Scot, or Irish.
• English influence: As the English nation steadily grew in wealth, importance, and power, it was able to extend its influence over the other nations of the islands. The English parliament, which had seized power from the monarchy in 1688, was the instrument through which a nation-state, with England at its centre, came to be forged.
• Act of Union (1707): The Act of Union between England and Scotland resulted in the formation of the 'United Kingdom of Great Britain', which meant that England was able to impose its influence on Scotland. The British parliament was henceforth dominated by its English members.
• Suppression of Scottish culture: The growth of a British identity meant that Scotland's distinctive culture and political institutions were systematically suppressed. The Catholic clans that inhabited the Scottish Highlands suffered terrible repression. The Scottish Highlanders were forbidden to speak their Gaelic language or wear their national dress, and large numbers were forcibly driven out of their homeland.
• Ireland's fate: Ireland suffered a similar fate. It was a country deeply divided between Catholics and Protestants. The English helped the Protestants of Ireland to establish their dominance over a largely Catholic country. Catholic revolts against British dominance were suppressed. After a failed revolt led by Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen (1798), Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801.
• Promotion of English culture: A new 'British nation' was forged through the propagation of a dominant English culture. The symbols of the new Britain – the British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God Save Our Noble King), the English language – were actively promoted, and the older nations survived only as subordinate partners in this union.

Q5. Why did nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans?

Answer:

Nationalist tensions emerged in the Balkans because:

• The Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variation comprising modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia, and Montenegro, whose inhabitants were broadly known as the Slavs.
• A large part of the Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman Empire. The spread of the ideas of romantic nationalism in the Balkans together with the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire made this region very explosive.
• All through the nineteenth century, the Ottoman Empire had sought to strengthen itself through modernisation and internal reforms but with very little success. One by one, its European subject nationalities broke away from its control and declared independence.
• The Balkan peoples based their claims for independence or political rights on nationality and used history to prove that they had once been independent but had subsequently been subjugated by foreign powers. Hence the rebellious nationalities in the Balkans thought of their struggles as attempts to win back their long-lost independence.
• As the different Slavic nationalities struggled to define their identity and independence, the Balkan area became an area of intense conflict. The Balkan states were fiercely jealous of each other and each hoped to gain more territory at the expense of the others.
• Matters were further complicated because the Balkans also became the scene of big power rivalry. During this period, there was intense rivalry among the European powers over trade and colonies as well as naval and military might. Each power – Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary – was keen on countering the hold of other powers over the Balkans and extending its own control over the area. This led to a series of wars in the region and finally the First World War.

Project

Q1. Find out more about nationalist symbols in countries outside Europe. For one or two countries, collect examples of pictures, posters or music that are symbols of nationalism. How are these different from European examples?

Answer:

Nationalist symbols in countries outside Europe:

India:

• Bharat Mata: The image of Bharat Mata, first created by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay and painted by Abanindranath Tagore, became a powerful symbol of Indian nationalism. She is portrayed as an ascetic figure, calm, composed, divine, and spiritual.
• The Swaraj Flag: Designed by Mahatma Gandhi in 1921, it was a tricolour (red, green, and white) with a spinning wheel in the centre, representing the Gandhian ideal of self-help.
• Vande Mataram: A hymn to the motherland written by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, it was widely sung during the Swadeshi movement in Bengal.

Vietnam:

• Ho Chi Minh: The leader of the Vietnamese independence movement became a symbol of national resistance against French and later American imperialism.
• The Vietnamese Flag: A red flag with a yellow star, symbolising the blood of the people and the star of communism.

Differences from European examples:

• European nationalist symbols often personified the nation as a female figure (Marianne, Germania), while in India, Bharat Mata is also a female figure but with distinctly Hindu iconography.
• European symbols were often created by artists and intellectuals, while in colonised countries, nationalist symbols were often linked to anti-colonial struggles and mass movements.
• In Europe, nationalism was often aligned with imperialism, while in colonised countries, nationalism was a struggle for independence from imperial rule.
• European nationalist symbols often emphasised heroism and military strength, while in India, symbols like the spinning wheel emphasised self-reliance and non-violence.