Delhi Sultanate: Khilji, Tughlaq, Sayyid and Lodi Dynasties Notes for OAS

Delhi Sultanate notes for OPSC OAS and UPSC cover the four later dynasties — Khilji, Tughlaq, Sayyid and Lodi — from 1290 to 1526 CE. This page explains Alauddin Khilji's market reforms and Deccan campaigns, Muhammad bin Tughluq's failed experiments, Firuz Shah Tughlaq's canals, the Sayyid and Lodi dynasties, Sultanate administration, architecture and literature, and the end of the Sultanate at the First Battle of Panipat.

Delhi Sultanate Khilji Dynasty (1290–1320): Jalaluddin and Alauddin

The Khilji dynasty was the second dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate and ruled for the shortest period — about 30 years from 1290 to 1320 CE. The Khiljis were of Turkic origin but had settled in Afghanistan and adopted Afghan customs.SSC 2007

Jalaluddin Khilji (1290–1296): The Founder

• Jalaluddin Khilji founded the Khilji dynasty in 1290 CE by overthrowing the last Slave Dynasty ruler, Muizuddin Qaiqabad.
• He ruled from Kilokhri (near Delhi) to avoid confrontation with the old Turkish nobles of Delhi.UPPSC 2008
• He executed the Sufi saint Sidi Maulah for attempting a rebellion.UPPSC 2008
• He was the first Sultan to proclaim that the Delhi Sultanate cannot be a truly Islamic State given India's predominantly non-Muslim population.
• He was murdered by his nephew Alauddin Khilji in 1296 CE.

Alauddin Khilji (1296–1316): The Most Powerful Sultan

Alauddin Khilji was the greatest ruler of the Khilji dynasty. He assumed the title Sikandar-i-Sani (the Second Alexander), reflecting his imperial ambitions.UP Lower 2008

Military Reforms

• Cash payment: He was the first Sultan to pay his soldiers in cash from the central treasury instead of assigning Iqtas.RRB 2003
• Abolition of Iqtas: He abolished the Iqta system and brought the army directly under state control.UPPSC
• Dagh and Chehra: He introduced Dagh (branding of horses) and Chehra (descriptive roll of soldiers) to prevent corruption and maintain an efficient army.
• Largest standing army: He created the largest standing army of the Sultanate, directly paid by the state.SSC 2008

Market Control Policy

Alauddin Khilji introduced a comprehensive market control policy, fixing prices of essential commodities including foodgrains, cloth and cattle. The policy was primarily to benefit his soldiers, who were paid in cash and needed affordable goods.WBCS 2018RRB 2002 Officials like the Shahna-i-Mandi regulated the markets strictly, and harsh punishments were prescribed for cheating.

Agrarian Reforms

• He raised land revenue to half (50%) of the produce after measuring the land (Masahat).UPPSC 2011
• He brought the peasant in direct relation with the state and tried to curb intermediaries.UPPSC 2011
• He was the first to introduce the system of measurement of land for the assessment of revenue.

Control over Nobles

Alauddin Khilji imposed strict regulations on nobles. He forbade them from holding banquets and festivities, making marriage alliances without his permission, and possessing intoxicants.SSC 2013 Ziauddin Barani noted that Alauddin was fully independent from the rules and orders of Shariat and framed his own regulations.UPPSC

Mongol Invasions

Alauddin Khilji faced the maximum number of Mongol attacks between 1292 and 1306 CE. His generals Zafar Khan and Ulugh Khan successfully repelled them. In 1306 CE, the Indus (Sindhu) served as the boundary between Mongol and Delhi Sultanate territories.UPPSC 2014 Jafar Khan was killed in the third Mongol invasion.BPSC 1996

Deccan Campaigns

Between 1309 and 1311, Malik Kafur, Alauddin's trusted general, led campaigns in South India against Devgiri, Warangal, Dwarasamudra and Madurai. The invaders returned to Delhi with untold wealth, and Alauddin promoted Malik Kafur to the rank of Malik-naib (Vice-Regent of the Empire).WBCS 2020CDS 2013

Mubarak Shah Khilji and the End of the Dynasty

• Mubarak Shah Khilji declared himself Khalifa (Caliph), assuming the title Al-Wasiq Billah — a radical step no Sultan before him had taken.
• Ziauddin Barani wrote that Mubarak Shah sometimes used to come in a naked position at the royal court, highlighting his erratic behaviour.
• The Khilji dynasty ended in 1320 CE when Ghazi Malik (Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq) overthrew the last ruler.

Tughlaq Dynasty (1320–1414): Ghiyasuddin to Firuz Shah

The Tughlaq dynasty ruled for the longest period among the five dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate — about 94 years from 1320 to 1414 CE.UP Lower 2008

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320–1325): The Founder

• Ghazi Malik founded the Tughlaq dynasty in 1320 CE, assuming the title Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.MPPSC 2017
• He made a rule that land revenue could be increased only nominally — by one-tenth or one-eleventh of the fixed revenue.UPPSC 2011
• He used the Kankut system for measuring Khalisa (crown) land.RPSC 2008
• He had a dispute with the Sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya.UPPSC
• He died in 1325 CE when a wooden pavilion collapsed on him near Delhi.

Muhammad bin Tughluq (1325–1351): The Most Learned Sultan

Muhammad bin Tughluq, originally known as Jauna Khan, was the most learned ruler of the Delhi Sultanate. He was well versed in astronomy, mathematics, medicine, logic and philosophy.UPPSC 2012

His Major Experiments

• He established the Diwan-e-amirkothi (department of agriculture) to promote agricultural improvement.OPSC 2018
• He planned the rotation of crops and granted Sondhar loans to farmers.UP Lower 2008
• He was the first Sultan of Delhi to participate in the public celebration of Holi.UPPSC 2004
• He held discussions with the Jain saint Jinaprabha Suri.
• He appointed Ibn Battuta as the Chief Qazi of Delhi.CDS 2005
• Badayuni commented on his death: 'The king was freed from his people and they from their king.'IAS (Pre) 1999

Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388): The Builder

Firuz Shah Tughlaq was the most prolific builder among the Delhi Sultans. He established the public works department for constructing canals, roads and buildings.UPPSC 2000

• He built the biggest network of canals in India, including the Rajabwah (from the Yamuna), Ulughkhani (from the Sutlej) and Shahab Nahr.IAS (Pre) 1998BPSC 2015
• He was the first Sultan to levy Haqh-i-sharab (irrigation tax).UPPSC 2010
• He founded Fatehabad, naming it after his son Fateh Khan.SSC 2019
• He brought two Ashoka Pillars to Delhi from Topra and Meerut.UPPSC
• He levied Jizya on Brahmins, a departure from earlier practice.UPPSC 2011
• He established a Translation Department to translate Sanskrit works into Persian.UPPSC 2004
• He was the first Indian ruler to organise the Haj pilgrimage at state expense.UPPSC 1998
• He established Dar-ul-Shafa (a free hospital) and Diwan-i-Khairat (department of charity).UPPSC 2013IAS (Pre) 1999
• He maintained about 1,80,000 slaves and established the Diwan-i-Bandagan (department of slaves).UPSC 2002
• He built Hauz Khas (pleasure resort) and the Kotla Fort in Delhi.
• He added the fifth storey of the Qutub Minar.UP Lower 2008

Timur's Invasion (1398) and the End of the Tughlaq Dynasty

• Timur Lang (Tamerlane) invaded India in 1398 AD. He defeated Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud Tughluq and sacked Delhi.MPPSC 2005
• Nasiruddin Mahmud was the last ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty (1394–1413 CE).IAS (Pre) 2004
• Timur's invasion dealt a severe blow to the Delhi Sultanate and accelerated its decline.

Sayyid Dynasty (1414–1451): Khizr Khan and the Timurid Vassalage

• Khizr Khan founded the Sayyid dynasty in 1414 CE. He was appointed governor of Multan and Lahore by Timur.MPPSC 2017
• He accepted the suzerainty of the Timurid ruler Mirza Shah Rukh and ruled as his vassal.CDS 2004
• He did not take the title of Sultan but ruled as Rayat-i-Ala.
• The last Sayyid ruler, Alauddin Alam Shah, abdicated in favour of Bahlul Lodi in 1451 CE.

Lodi Dynasty (1451–1526): The Afghan Sultans

The Lodi dynasty was the last dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate and the only one of Afghan origin.UPPSC 2016

Bahlul Lodi (1451–1489)

• Bahlul Lodi founded the Lodi dynasty in 1451 CE.SSC 2001
• His main achievement was the conquest of Jaunpur, where he defeated and annexed the Sharqui dynasty.MPPSC 2010

Sikandar Lodi (1489–1517)

• He founded the city of Agra in 1504 and made it his capital.CGPSC 2019, UPPSC 2011
• He introduced the Gaj-e-Sikandri (a yard of 32 inches) for measuring agricultural land, later used by Sher Shah and Akbar.UPPSC
• He composed poems under the pen name Gulrukhi.UPPSC 2015
• He abolished the tax on grains.UP UDA/LDA 2010
• He destroyed the Jwalamukhi temple at Naga Kot and ordered the temples of Mathura to be destroyed.

Ibrahim Lodi (1517–1526) and the First Battle of Panipat

• Ibrahim Lodi was the last ruler of the Lodi dynasty. He was defeated by Maharana Sanga in the Battle of Khatoli (1517 CE).RAS/RTS 2012
• Alam Khan, an uncle of Ibrahim Lodi and a pretender to the throne, invited Babur to invade India.IAS (Pre) 2003
• Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat on 21 April 1526, ending the Delhi Sultanate and founding the Mughal Empire.SSC 2001

Administration of the Delhi Sultanate: Departments, Iqta and Land Revenue

Central Administration

Provincial and Local Administration

• The empire was divided into Iqtas (provinces), each under an Iqtadar (Muqti).
• A Paragana was headed by a Shiqdar.CDS 2002
• Amil was the in-charge of revenue collection.IAS (Pre) 2019
• Chaudhary was the supreme rural official of land revenue.IAS (Pre) 2004
• Fawazil was the excess amount paid to the central exchequer by the Iqtadars.IAS (Pre) 1998
• Masahat was the term for land measurement.HPPSC 2012
• Abwab referred to miscellaneous taxes like house tax, grazing tax and irrigation tax.HPPSC 2012
• Zawabits were state laws framed by the Sultan to supplement Shariat.UPPSC 1997
• Jarib was a measuring rod, not a tax.UPPSC 2019

Architecture and Literature of the Sultanate Period

Architecture

• Alai Darwaza (Alauddin Khilji) — the first true arch and dome in India, part of the Qutub Minar complex.WBCS 2020
• Balban's tomb — the first tomb constructed in the Indo-Islamic style in India.UPPSC 2004
• Qutub Minar fifth storey — added by Firuz Shah Tughlaq.UP Lower 2008
• Hauz Khas and Kotla Fort — built by Firuz Shah Tughlaq.
• Adilabad Fort — built by Muhammad bin Tughluq.
• Jahapanah — the fourth medieval city of Delhi, built by Muhammad bin Tughluq.IAS (Pre) 2007
• Mehrauli (Qila Rai Pithora) — the first city of medieval Delhi, where Qutbuddin Aibak laid the foundation.IAS (Pre) 1998
• Sikandar Lodi's tomb — an octagonal tomb in Lodi Gardens.UPPSC 2007

Literature and Historians

• Amir Khusrau (1253–1325) — known as the 'Parrot of India', court poet of Alauddin Khilji, introduced Sabaq-i-Hind, pioneered Qawwali and Tabla, wrote Tarikh-i-Alai, Miftah-ul-Futuh and Tughluq Nama.UPPSC 2003, 2008
• Ziauddin Barani — authored Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi, contemporary of Muhammad bin Tughluq.IAS (Pre) 2010
• Minhaj-us-Siraj — authored Tabaqat-i-Nasiri, the earliest description of Bakhtiyar Khalji's invasion of Bihar.BPSC 2018
• Hasan Nizami — authored Taj-ul-Masir.UPPSC 1997
• Ibn Battuta — Moroccan traveller, wrote the Rihla in Arabic in the 14th century, appointed Chief Qazi by Muhammad bin Tughluq.CDS 2013, 2015
• Al-Biruni — authored Kitab-ul-Hind, came with Mahmud Ghaznavi.RAS/RTS 2010

Odisha Angle: Kalinga and the Delhi Sultanate

Odisha (ancient Kalinga) remained largely independent during the Delhi Sultanate period. The Eastern Ganga dynasty ruled Kalinga and successfully resisted Turkish expansion from Bengal.

• Narasingha Deva I (1238–1264 CE), the builder of the Sun Temple at Konark, took the offensive against Turko-Afghan invaders and defended his kingdom against attacks from Bengal.
• The first Muslim invasion of Odisha occurred during the reign of Raja Raja III (1198–1211 CE) when Bakhtiyar Khalji's generals invaded Jajnagar.
• The Gajapati kingdom under Kapilendra Deva (1434–1466 CE) expanded Odisha's power, but the kingdom was finally conquered by the Afghans in 1568 CE under Sulaiman Khan Karrani.
• Khalkatapatna in Odisha yielded glazed pottery from Arabia, confirming maritime trade links between Kalinga and the Arab world.

Practice Questions on the Later Delhi Sultanate for OPSC OAS