The Harappan Civilization, also known as the Indus Valley Civilization, was the first urban culture of the Indian subcontinent. For OAS prelims, focus on discovery, extent, major sites and their unique features, town planning, economy, religion, script, and the debated causes of decline. This page covers all these topics with PYQ-based practice questions.
Discovery and Extent
Discovery
The Harappan Civilization was discovered in 1921 with the excavation of Harappa by Daya Ram Sahni. Mohenjodaro was excavated in 1922 by Rakhaldas Banerjee. Sir John Marshall was the Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India who directed these excavations. Alexander Cunningham had visited Harappa earlier but failed to recognize its significance. The primary source of knowledge about the Harappans is archaeological excavations, as their script remains undeciphered.
The Harappan Civilization was a Bronze Age urban culture that flourished in the north-western regions of the Indian subcontinent, known for its planned cities, drainage systems, and extensive trade networks.
Harappa was discovered in 1921 by Daya Ram Sahni; Mohenjodaro in 1922 by Rakhaldas Banerjee. Sir John Marshall led the excavations.
Extent
The civilization covered Punjab, Sindh, a part of the North-Western Frontier, Kathiawar, and a part of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. Its northernmost site is Shortugai in Afghanistan, southernmost is Daimabad in Maharashtra, easternmost is Alamgirpur in Uttar Pradesh, and westernmost is Sutkagen Dor in Baluchistan. In Mesopotamian records, the Indus region was called Meluha.
Major Sites and Their Features
| Site | River/Region | Key Feature |
|---|---|---|
| Harappa | Ravi | Bull-seal, labour residence |
| Mohenjodaro | Indus | Great Bath, Assembly Hall, Dancing Girl |
| Kalibangan | Ghaggar | Ploughed field, fire altars |
| Lothal | Bhogava | Dockyard, granary, ivory scale |
| Dholavira | Kutch | Three-part division, water management, rock-cut architecture |
| Rakhigarhi | Haryana | Largest Harappan site in India |
| Banawali | Haryana | Terracotta plough |
| Chanhudaro | Sindh | Excavated by J.H. Mackay |
| Surkotada | Gujarat | Excavated by J.P. Joshi |
| Daimabad | Maharashtra | Copper chariot |
If a question asks where the Great Bath was found, the answer is Mohenjodaro. If it asks about a dockyard, the answer is Lothal.
Town Planning and Architecture
Harappan cities were divided into a citadel (higher, smaller) and a lower town (larger, lower), both often walled. Streets were broad and straight, laid out in a grid pattern. Houses had separate bathing areas and toilets. Drainage systems were advanced, with drains running along streets. Burnt brick buildings were a hallmark. The Great Bath at Mohenjodaro is a famous structure. Wells were common, but true arches and pillars were not used.
- The Harappans did not know iron. They used copper, bronze, gold, and silver.
- Drains and water chutes were built outside the walls, not inside.
- The Harappan script is undeciphered, so inscriptions do not directly reveal history.
Economy and Trade
Agriculture was the main occupation. The Harappans were the first to produce cotton. They domesticated animals such as cattle, sheep, and goats. Trade was extensive, both internal and external. They traded with Mesopotamia, as evidenced by Harappan seals found there. Seals were used for commercial purposes. Standard weights and measures were used. There was no coinage; trade was by barter. Metals known included copper, bronze, gold, and silver; iron was unknown.
Religion and Society
The Harappans worshipped the Mother Goddess and a prototype of Shiva (Pashupati). The Pipal tree and humped bull were revered. The horse was not known, and lion remains are absent. The cow was not represented on seals; the bull was. Burial practices included earth burial with the head towards the north and burial of items with the dead. The civilization was predominantly secular, with religion not dominating public life.
Script and Decline
The Harappan script is pictographic and written from right to left. It remains undeciphered. The decline of the civilization is attributed to multiple factors: ecological changes, earthquakes, Aryan invasions, and according to an IIT Kharagpur study, continuous low rainfall for 900 years. Water conversion is not a recognized cause.
OPSC often asks direct factual questions on Harappan sites, their features, and the correct river. Memorise the table of sites and features.
Odisha Angle
The Harappan Civilization did not extend to Odisha. However, OAS prelims may ask general questions on Harappan sites and features. There is no direct Odisha-specific Harappan site, but aspirants should remember that Kuchai in Mayurbhanj is a Neolithic site, not Harappan.
Practice Questions
The source of knowledge about Harappan culture is:
- rock edicts
- writing in terracotta seals
- archaeological excavations
- All of the above
Show answer
(c) - Archaeological excavations are the primary source. UPPSC (Pre) 1996, 1994
The site of Harappa is located on the bank of river:
- Saraswati
- Indus
- Beas
- Ravi
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(d) - Harappa is on the Ravi river. CDS 2012
The discovery of Harappan Civilisation was in:
- 1942
- 1921
- 1901
- 1935
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(b) - Harappa was discovered in 1921. SSC 2004
Two Indians who were associated with the discovery of Indus Valley Civilisation are:
- Rakhaldas Banerjee and Dayaram Sahni
- John Marshall and Ishwari Prasad
- Ashirwadi Lal Srivastava and Rangnath Rao
- Madhosarup Vats and VB Rao
Show answer
(a) - Banerjee and Sahni discovered Mohenjodaro and Harappa. CGPSC (Pre) 2003
In the Mesopotamian records, which one of the following terms was used for the Indus Valley Civilisation?
- Dilmum
- Meluha
- Magan
- Failaka
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(b) - Meluha was the Mesopotamian name for the Indus region. NDA 2017
Which of the following statements about the Indus Civilisation is not true?
- Accurate drainage system in cities.
- Trade and commerce were in an advanced stage.
- Worshipping of Mother Goddess.
- People knew about iron.
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(d) - The Harappans did not know iron. UPPSC (Pre) 1992
The Great Bath was found at the archaeological site of:
- Ropar
- Harappa
- Mohenjodaro
- Kalibangan
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(c) - The Great Bath is at Mohenjodaro. UPPSC 2010
Which Harappan city is divided into three parts?
- Lothal
- Kalibangan
- Dholavira
- Surkotada
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(c) - Dholavira is divided into three parts. UPRO/ARO (Mains) 2013
Which of the following is a Harappan port?
- Alexandria
- Lothal
- Mahasthangarh
- Nagapattinam
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(b) - Lothal was a Harappan port with a dockyard. BPSC (Pre) 2011
The largest Harappan site in India is:
- Harappa
- Kalibangan
- Rakhigarhi
- Mohenjodaro
Show answer
(c) - Rakhigarhi in Haryana is the largest Harappan site in India. UPPSC (Mains) 2004