Arab and Turkish Invasion of India: Complete Notes for OAS Prelims

Arab and Turkish Invasion notes for OPSC OAS and UPSC cover the first Muslim incursions into India from the 8th to the 12th century CE. This page explains the Arab conquest of Sindh under Muhammad bin Qasim, Mahmud Ghaznavi's 17 plundering expeditions, Muhammad Ghori's territorial conquests that established Turkish rule, the Battles of Tarain, Al-Biruni's Kitab-ul-Hind, Bakhtiyar Khalji's eastern campaigns, the Mongol threat, and the Odisha connection.

Arab Invasion of Sindh: Muhammad bin Qasim and the First Muslim Incursion

The Arab invasion of Sindh in 712 CE was the first successful Muslim military expedition into the Indian subcontinent. It was led by Muhammad bin Qasim, a young Arab general of the Umayyad Caliphate, who was sent by Al-Hajjaj bin Yusuf, the governor of Iraq.

Causes of the Arab Invasion

• Immediate cause: Arab ships were plundered by pirates of Debal, and Raja Dahir of Sindh refused to return the captured goods or punish the pirates.
• Political cause: Raja Dahir had given shelter to Arab rebels (the Hafi tribe) who opposed the Umayyad Caliphate.
• Economic cause: The wealth of Sindh and its strategic position as a gateway to India attracted the Arabs.
• Religious cause: The spread of Islam was a motivating factor, though not the sole one.

Course of the Conquest

Muhammad bin Qasim captured Debal (near modern Karachi) in 712 CE, then advanced to Brahmanabad and Rawar. Raja Dahir was defeated and killed at the Battle of Rewar. Muhammad bin Qasim then captured Multan and established Arab rule over Sindh and the lower Indus valley.

Administration and Impact

• Hindus and Buddhists were granted Zimmi status and allowed to practise their religion on payment of Jizya.
• The existing local administrative machinery was largely retained, with Arab officials at the top.
• Brahmanabad was renamed Mansura and became the Arab capital of Sindh.
• The conquest opened India to Islamic cultural and commercial influences and marked the beginning of India's contact with Islam.

Chach Nama: The Primary Source

The Chach Nama (also called Fateh Nama-i-Sindh) is the oldest chronicle of the Arab conquest of Sindh. It was originally written in Arabic by Ali Kufi and later translated into Persian. It describes the rule of Chach, the Brahmin ruler of Sindh, and the conquest by Muhammad bin Qasim.

Resistance to Arab Expansion

The Gurjara-Pratiharas under Nagabhata I offered stiff resistance to Arab expansion beyond Sindh. In 738 CE, the Pratiharas defeated the Arabs, checking their advance into the interior of India. The Arab traveller Sulaiman (9th century) noted that the Pratihara king maintained the finest cavalry in India and was a formidable enemy of the Arabs.

Mahmud Ghaznavi's Invasions: Plunder, Not Permanent Rule

Mahmud Ghaznavi (r. 998–1030 CE) was the son of Subuktigin, the founder of the Ghaznavid dynasty. He launched 17 invasions into India between 1000 and 1025 CE, plundering wealth and destroying temples.

Key Invasions of Mahmud Ghaznavi

The Somnath Temple Attack (1025 CE)

The attack on the Somnath temple in 1025 CE was Mahmud's most famous invasion. The temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva, was one of the twelve Jyotirlingas and was renowned for its immense wealth. Mahmud destroyed the temple and carried away vast quantities of gold and the famous temple doors. The ruler of Gujarat at the time was Bhimdev I of the Chaulukya dynasty, who could not prevent the destruction.

Al-Biruni and His Kitab-ul-Hind: The First Indologist

Al-Biruni (973–1048 CE) was a Persian scholar, mathematician, and astronomer who accompanied Mahmud Ghaznavi to India in the 11th century. He stayed in India from 1017 to 1030 CE, learning Sanskrit and studying Indian philosophy, religion, and science.

Al-Biruni's Observations

• He was the first Muslim to study the Puranas and Hindu scriptures.
• He criticised the Hindus for their exclusiveness, attributing it to the caste system.
• He was a specialist in trigonometry and astronomy and wrote over 120 works.
• He identified parallels between Sufi doctrines of divine love and the Bhagavad Gita, and between Sufi theories of the soul and Patanjali's Yoga Sutra.
• He was a devout Muslim, not a secular writer in the modern sense, though his work is remarkably objective.

Muhammad Ghori and the Establishment of Turkish Rule

Muhammad Ghori (Muizzuddin Muhammad bin Sam, r. 1173–1206 CE) belonged to the Shansabani (Ghorid) dynasty of Ghor in present-day Afghanistan. Unlike Mahmud Ghaznavi, Ghori aimed at territorial expansion and establishing permanent rule in India.

Early Campaigns and Defeats

• First invasion: Multan (1175 CE).
• First defeat: Bhima II of Gujarat at the Battle of Kayadara (1178 CE).
• First Battle of Tarain (1191 CE): Defeated by Prithviraj Chauhan.
• Second Battle of Tarain (1192 CE): Defeated Prithviraj Chauhan, establishing Turkish rule in India.

Battle of Chandawar (1194 CE)

After Tarain, Ghori defeated Jaichand, the Gahadavala ruler of Kannauj, at the Battle of Chandawar (near modern Etawah, Uttar Pradesh) in 1194 CE. Jaichand was killed, and Ghori gained control over the Ganga-Yamuna doab.

Ghori's Indian Coins

Muhammad Ghori issued coins with the figure of Goddess Lakshmi and the Sanskrit legend 'Sri Muhammad Sam' in Nagari script. This was an adaptive strategy to gain local acceptance. These coins are known as the bull-and-horseman type.

Bakhtiyar Khalji and the Eastern Conquests

Bakhtiyar Khalji, a slave and general of Muhammad Ghori, conquered Bihar around 1200 CE and Bengal around 1202 CE. He destroyed the great Buddhist universities of Nalanda and Vikramshila. The Tabaqat-i-Nasiri by Minhaj-us-Siraj provides the earliest description of Bakhtiyar Khalji's invasion of Bihar.

The Mongol Threat to the Delhi Sultanate

The Mongol threat to India appeared in 1221 CE when Chenghiz Khan pursued Jalaluddin Mingburnu, the Khwarazmian crown prince, to the banks of the Indus. However, Chenghiz Khan did not cross the Indus to invade India; he returned to Mongolia.

• The Mongols launched several invasions into the Indian subcontinent from 1221 to 1327.
• Alauddin Khalji successfully defended India against multiple Mongol invasions.
• The Mongols never established a permanent rule in India.
• Mongol commanders who did invade India include Tair Bahadur, Abdullah, and Qutlugh Khwaja.

Impact of the Turkish Invasions on Indian Society and Culture

• Political: Establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206 CE by Qutbuddin Aibak, Ghori's slave and successor.
• Religious: Decline of Buddhism in India due to the destruction of Nalanda and Vikramshila; growth of Islam.
• Architectural: Introduction of the arch and dome style, as seen in the Qutb Minar complex. Blend of Indian and Islamic styles created the Indo-Islamic architecture.
• Linguistic: Interaction between Turkish, Persian, and Indian languages contributed to the emergence of Urdu.
• Social: Indian society became more composite, with the gradual emergence of a syncretic culture.

Odisha Angle: Kalinga and the Turkish Invasions

Odisha (ancient Kalinga) had trade and cultural contacts with the Arab world even before the Turkish invasions. Archaeological evidence from Khalkatapatna reveals glazed pottery from Arabian countries, confirming contact between Odisha and Arabia.

• The first Muslim invasion of Odisha took place during the reign of Raja Raja III (1198–1211 CE) of the Eastern Ganga dynasty. The Muslims of Bengal, led by Muhammad-i-Sheran and Ahmad-i-Sheran, sent by Bakhtiyar Khalji, invaded Jajnagar (Odisha).
• Narasingha Deva I (1238–1264 CE), the famous Ganga king who built the Sun Temple at Konark, was the first king from Kalinga to take the offensive against Islamic expansion by Turko-Afghan invaders. His father had successfully defended the kingdom against the Turko-Afghan rulers of Bengal.
• The final Muslim conquest of Odisha took place in 1568 CE under the Afghan ruler Sulaiman Khan Karrani, ending the independence of the Gajapati kingdom.

Practice Questions on Arab Turkish Invasion for OPSC OAS