These human resources notes for OPSC/UPSC (Part I) cover the racial elements of India’s population, the Scheduled Tribes, Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups, tribes by region, tribal customs, constitutional safeguards, and the tribes of Odisha. Prelims asks mostly tribe-to-region matches, PVTG facts and constitutional articles, while mains uses the same material for tribal development, forest rights and displacement answers. Census, population, density, sex ratio, literacy and languages are in Part II.
Human Resources Notes for OPSC/UPSC: Racial Elements of India’s Population
The population of a country seen as a resource: its numbers, composition (race, tribe, language, age, sex), distribution and quality (literacy, health, skills).
Racial classification
India’s population is a mix of many racial elements that arrived in waves and blended. B. S. Guha (using the 1931 Census) identified six main types, and Herbert Risley earlier proposed seven types. Race has not been an important basis of social segregation in India, because there are no pure races today.
| Racial element (Guha) | Features and present distribution |
|---|---|
| Negrito | Regarded as the earliest to arrive; short, dark, woolly hair; seen today mainly among the Andaman tribes (Onge, Jarawa, Great Andamanese, Sentinelese) |
| Proto-Australoid | Came after the Negritos; dark, broad nose; associated with Australian aborigines; forms the bulk of many tribal and lower-caste populations in central and eastern India, such as the Santhal and Munda |
| Mongoloid | Yellow complexion, oblique eyes, high cheek bones, sparse hair, medium height; Himalayan belt and North-East UPSC 1997 |
| Mediterranean | Found in north, north-west and south India; associated with early urban and Dravidian-speaking populations |
| Western Brachycephals | Alpinoids, Dinarics and Armenoids; Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Bengal and Odisha coasts |
| Nordic | Tall, fair, long-headed; the last to arrive from Central Asia; associated with the Indo-Aryans; Punjab, Rajasthan, north India |
- Negrito is first and Nordic is last in order of arrival.
- Mongoloids are the racial group of the hilly and forested North-East, not the Dinarics or Mediterraneans.
- Dravidian is mainly a linguistic label for South India, and racial and linguistic categories are not the same. BPSC 2016
IMAGE (Map): Distribution of racial elements in India (Guha classification)
Labels: Negrito (Andaman), Proto-Australoid (central and east India), Mongoloid (Himalaya and North-East), Mediterranean (north and south), Western Brachycephals (west coast and Bengal), Nordic (north-west)
Caption: India’s racial elements overlap and have mixed over thousands of years.
Find it: search B. S. Guha racial classification of India map; NCERT Class 12 Indian Society
Scheduled Tribes of India: Definition, Population and Constitutional Provisions
Who is a Scheduled Tribe
The Constitution gives no definition of a tribe. Article 366(25) refers to communities that the President specifies as Scheduled Tribes under Article 342, state by state, after consulting the Governor. UPSC 2005 The Lokur Committee (1965) suggested the working criteria: primitive traits, distinct culture, geographical isolation, shyness of contact and backwardness.
Population and distribution
- Scheduled Tribes numbered about 10.4 crore in Census 2011, about 8.6% of the population. The tribal sex ratio is about 990, and tribal literacy is about 59%, below the national average.
- By number, Madhya Pradesh has the largest ST population, followed by Maharashtra, Odisha, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Jharkhand. CGPSC 2018
- By percentage, Lakshadweep (about 95%) and Mizoram (about 94%) lead, followed by Nagaland and Meghalaya (about 86% each). Among states, Mizoram has the highest ST share. CDS 2018
- Most tribal people live in the central belt (Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha, Maharashtra, Gujarat), not the North-East, which holds only about a tenth of the tribal population. UPSC 2005
- The Gond are the largest tribal group of India, followed by the Bhil and the Santhal.
- Haryana and Punjab have no notified Scheduled Tribes. BPSC 2015
Constitutional safeguards
| Provision | Key point |
|---|---|
| Article 342 | Notification of Scheduled Tribes by the President |
| Fifth Schedule (Article 244(1)) | Administration and control of Scheduled Areas and tribes in states other than Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram; includes Odisha; Tribes Advisory Council |
| Sixth Schedule (Article 244(2)) | Autonomous district and regional councils in tribal areas of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram |
| Articles 15(4), 16(4), 46 | Special provisions, reservation in services, promotion of educational and economic interests |
| Articles 330, 332 | Reserved seats in Lok Sabha and state assemblies |
| Article 164(1) proviso | Minister in charge of tribal welfare in some states, including Odisha |
| Article 338A | National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (89th Amendment, 2003) |
- PESA, 1996: extends Part IX (Panchayats) to Fifth Schedule areas with strong powers for the Gram Sabha over land, minor forest produce and local resources.
- Forest Rights Act, 2006: recognises individual and community forest rights of Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers.
- Ministry of Tribal Affairs: created in 1999. The Eklavya Model Residential Schools provide education for tribal students.
Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs)
The most backward among the Scheduled Tribes. The Dhebar Commission (1960-61) pointed to their special need, and they were first called Primitive Tribal Groups, renamed PVTGs in 2006. Criteria: a pre-agricultural level of technology, a stagnant or declining population, extremely low literacy and a subsistence economy.
- India has 75 PVTGs in 18 states and the Union Territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. UPSC 2019 Odisha has the largest number, 13.
- Examples: Irular and Konda Reddi are in the list. UPSC 2019 Pahari Korwa (Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh) is a PVTG. JPSC 2016 The Toto live in Totopara in West Bengal. WBCS 2017
- The Andaman PVTGs are the Great Andamanese, Onge, Jarawa and Sentinelese, and the Shompen live in Great Nicobar. CDS 2019
- PM-JANMAN (PM Janjati Adivasi Nyaya Maha Abhiyan), approved in November 2023 with an outlay of about ₹24,000 crore, provides housing, roads, drinking water, electricity and health for PVTG habitations.
Odisha has 62 notified Scheduled Tribes, including 13 PVTGs, the largest number of any state. The Kondh (Kandha) are the largest tribe of the state.
Tribes of India by Region: Himalaya, North-East, Central, South and Islands
| Region | Tribes |
|---|---|
| Himalaya and Trans-Himalaya | Gaddi (Dhauladhar, Himachal) BPSC 2000; Bhotia (Uttarakhand, practise transhumance) UPPSC 2003; Jaunsari (Uttarakhand); Tharu (Terai of Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh) UPRO/ARO 2017; Bakarwal and Gujjar (Jammu and Kashmir); Changpa (Ladakh, rear pashmina goats) UPSC 2014; Lepcha, Bhutia and Limbu (Sikkim) |
| North-East | Nyishi and Apatani (Arunachal Pradesh) CDS 2020; Naga tribes such as Angami, Lotha, Rengma; Khasi, Garo and Jaintia (Meghalaya); Mizo; Karbi (Assam) |
| Central and eastern India | Gond (largest), Baiga, Korku (Madhya Pradesh); Bhil (Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra) BPSC 2008; Santhal, Munda, Oraon, Ho, Birhor (Jharkhand); Kondh, Saura, Bonda, Juang (Odisha) |
| South India | Toda and Kota (Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu) MPPSC 2017 CDS 2017; Irula, Chenchu, Kadar |
| Islands | Great Andamanese, Onge, Jarawa, Sentinelese; Shompen and Nicobarese |
- Todas live in the Nilgiris of Tamil Nadu, not Kerala. BPSC 2019
- Santhals are found in Jharkhand, West Bengal and Odisha, not Chhattisgarh. UKPSC 2002
- Khas are Himalayan hill people, not a tribe of Arunachal Pradesh. UPPSC 2020
- Dongria Kondh and Bonda are Odisha PVTGs. Karbi are in Assam, not Himachal Pradesh. UPSC 2013
- Zulu is a South African people. UKPSC 2001
- Rengma is a Naga tribe and not native to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. UPPSC 2020
IMAGE (Map): Map of major Indian tribes by region
Labels: Gaddi, Bhotia, Jaunsari, Tharu, Lepcha, Nyishi, Naga, Khasi, Garo, Gond, Bhil, Santhal, Munda, Oraon, Kondh, Saura, Bonda, Toda, Irula, Jarawa, Shompen
Caption: Tribal groups cluster in the Himalaya, North-East, central belt, south and islands.
Find it: NCERT Class 12 Indian Society; search India tribes map by state
Tribal Customs, Institutions and Livelihoods
| Item | Facts |
|---|---|
| Dhumkuria | Youth dormitory of the Oraon JPSC 2016; the Gond have the Gotul |
| Sarhul | Spring festival of sal flowers celebrated by the Oraon, Munda and Ho CGPSC 2016 |
| Polyandry | Practised traditionally among the Toda and Khasa (Jaunsar-Bawar) UPPSC Mains 2005 |
| Jhum (shifting cultivation) | Slash-and-burn farming of the hill tribes of the North-East, such as the Khasi UPPSC 2010; Podu in Odisha |
| Transhumance | Seasonal movement of livestock between the high and low pastures, as among the Bhotia and Gaddi |
| Deepawali as a day of mourning | Observed by the Tharu UPPSC Mains 2015 |
| Manganiyars | Hereditary folk musicians of the Thar desert, Rajasthan UPSC 2014 |
Questions on customs usually give one unusual practice and ask for the tribe. Learn the odd ones: Dhumkuria (Oraon), Gotul (Gond), polyandry (Toda, Khasa), Sarhul (Oraon, Munda, Ho) and the Tharu’s Deepawali mourning.
De-notified tribes
De-notified tribes are communities once branded as criminal under the Criminal Tribes Act, 1871. The Act was repealed in 1952, but many were then covered by habitual offender laws. They are often nomadic or semi-nomadic. The Renke Commission (2008) and the Idate Commission (2017) studied their needs, and many DNTs do not hold ST, SC or OBC status.
Tribal Development: Mains Analysis
- Land and forest rights: tribal livelihoods depend on forests, and FRA 2006 and PESA 1996 give Gram Sabha powers. Implementation gaps and rejected claims are recurring themes.
- Displacement and mining: mineral wealth lies in tribal areas of Odisha, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh. Projects cause displacement, and the Niyamgiri case (2013) showed Gram Sabha consent as a safeguard.
- Education and health: low literacy, malnutrition, maternal mortality and sickle cell disease are major issues. Eklavya Model Residential Schools, the National Sickle Cell Anaemia Elimination Mission (2023) and PM-JANMAN target them.
- Culture and identity: language recognition such as Santali in the Eighth Schedule (2003), tribal museums, and Janjatiya Gauraw Divas on 15 November (Birsa Munda’s birth anniversary, since 2021).
- Tribal assimilation versus isolation: the debate between the integration approach and the Panchsheel policy of Nehru and Verrier Elwin (1950s) for tribal development without imposition.
- Islands: the protection of the Jarawa and Sentinelese through no-contact policy and tribal reserves, and concern over infrastructure projects in Great Nicobar where the Shompen live.
Likely mains framings: examine the problems of tribal communities and the role of FRA 2006 and PESA; discuss how mining and displacement affect tribal people in central India; assess the Panchsheel policy for tribal development; explain the importance of PVTG schemes like PM-JANMAN.
Tribes of Odisha: Kondh, Santhal, Saura and PVTGs
- Population: Odisha had about 95.9 lakh Scheduled Tribe people in Census 2011, about 23% of the state. It has 62 notified tribes, with Mayurbhanj, Koraput, Malkangiri, Rayagada, Kandhamal and Sundargarh among the districts with the largest tribal populations.
- Major tribes: Kondh (Kandha), the largest; Gond; Santhal (Mayurbhanj, Keonjhar, Balasore); Saura; Bhuyan; Munda; Oraon; Paraja; Gadaba.
- PVTGs (13 in all): Dongria Kondh (Niyamgiri hills, Rayagada and Kalahandi), Bonda (Malkangiri), Juang (Keonjhar and Dhenkanal), Didayi (Malkangiri), Lanjia Saura (Rayagada and Gajapati), Kutia Kondh (Kandhamal), Paudi Bhuyan (Keonjhar and Sundargarh), Birhor, Lodha and Mankirdia (Mayurbhanj) and Hill Kharia.
- Culture: Saura ritual wall paintings (Idital), Gadaba and Paraja Dhemsa dance, Bonda weekly market at Ankadeli, Santhal Baha festival. Santali, with the Ol Chiki script, has been in the Eighth Schedule since 2003.
- Livelihood and law: Podu (shifting) cultivation, kendu leaf collection and minor forest produce. Large parts of the state are Fifth Schedule areas, and Odisha was among the states with a tribal welfare minister under Article 164.
- Rights: in 2013 the Gram Sabhas of Niyamgiri rejected a bauxite mining proposal after a Supreme Court direction under FRA 2006.
- Representation: Droupadi Murmu, a Santhal from Mayurbhanj, became India’s first tribal President in July 2022.
The Dongria Kondh of Niyamgiri worship the hill as Niyam Raja. When Gram Sabhas voted in 2013, every one of them rejected the mining plan on cultural and religious grounds. The case is used to show how FRA and PESA give tribal communities a voice in land use.
IMAGE (Map): Map of tribal districts and PVTG habitats in Odisha
Labels: Mayurbhanj (Santhal, Birhor, Mankirdia), Keonjhar (Juang, Paudi Bhuyan), Rayagada (Dongria Kondh, Lanjia Saura), Malkangiri (Bonda, Didayi), Kandhamal (Kutia Kondh), Koraput (Paraja, Gadaba)
Caption: Odisha’s tribal groups and PVTGs are concentrated in the hilly south and west and in the Simlipal area.
Find it: SC and ST Development Department, Odisha; search Odisha PVTG map districts
Human Resources Practice Questions and PYQs
Consider the following pairs. I. Limboo (Limbu) - Sikkim II. Karbi - Himachal Pradesh III. Dongaria Kondh - Odisha IV. Bonda - Tamil Nadu. Which of the above pairs are correctly matched?
- I and III
- II and IV
- I, III and IV
- All of these
Show answer
(a) - the Karbi live in Assam and the Bonda in Odisha. UPSC 2013
Consider the following statements about PVTGs. I. PVTGs reside in 18 States and 1 Union Territory. II. A stagnant or declining population is one of the criteria for determining PVTG status. III. There are 95 PVTGs officially notified in the country so far. IV. Irular and Konda Reddi tribes are included in the list of PVTGs. Which are correct?
- I, II and III
- II, III and IV
- I, II and IV
- I, III and IV
Show answer
(c) - 75 PVTGs, not 95, are notified. UPSC 2019
With reference to the ‘Changpa’ community of India, consider the following statements. I. They live mainly in the state of Uttarakhand. II. They rear the Pashmina goats that yield fine wool. III. They are kept in the category of Scheduled Tribes. Which are correct?
- Only I
- II and III only
- Only III
- I, II and III
Show answer
(b) - the Changpa live in Ladakh. UPSC 2014
Which one of the following statements is not correct?
- There is no definition of the Scheduled Tribes in the Constitution of India.
- North-East India accounts for a little over half of the country’s tribal population.
- The people known as Todas live in the Nilgiri area.
- Lotha is a language spoken in Nagaland.
Show answer
(b) - most tribal people live in central India, not the North-East. UPSC 2005
They are people of yellow complexion, oblique eyes, high cheek bones, sparse hair and medium height. The reference here is to
- Nordic Aryans
- Austrics
- Negroids
- Mongoloids
Show answer
(d) - these are the typical Mongoloid features. UPSC 1997
Which one of the following Indian States has the highest percentage of Scheduled Tribe population to its total population?
- Mizoram
- Nagaland
- Meghalaya
- Arunachal Pradesh
Show answer
(a) - over 94% of Mizoram’s population is Scheduled Tribe. CDS 2018
Which of the following tribal groups is dominantly found in the Blue Mountains?
- Lambadas
- Gonds
- Jarawas
- Todas
Show answer
(d) - the Blue Mountains are the Nilgiris, home of the Todas. CDS 2017
Consider the following statements about Odisha’s tribes. 1. Odisha has the largest number of PVTGs among the states. 2. The Dongria Kondh live in the Niyamgiri hills. 3. The Bonda live in the Keonjhar district. How many are correct?
- Only one
- Only two
- All three
- None
Show answer
(b) - statements 1 and 2 are correct, while the Bonda live in the Malkangiri district.