Maratha Empire notes for OPSC OAS and UPSC cover the rise of the Marathas under Shivaji, his administrative and military innovations, the expansion under the Peshwas, the Maratha Confederacy, the Third Battle of Panipat, the Anglo-Maratha Wars, and Maratha rule in Odisha. This page explains the Ashtapradhan, Chauth and Sardeshmukhi, the Peshwa dynasty, Panipat's causes and consequences, and the Bhonsles of Nagpur's administration of Odisha.
Rise of the Marathas: Religious Consciousness, Geography and Political Awakening
The rise of the Marathas in the 17th century was driven by a combination of religious consciousness, the geographical security of the Sahyadri ranges, and political awakening after the decline of the Deccan Sultanates.UPPSC 1992 Shivaji's father, Shahji Bhonsle, served the Adil Shahi kingdom of Bijapur and obtained the jagirdari of Poona from it.MPPSC 2010 Shivaji was born in 1627 at Shivneri Fort and was formally crowned Chhatrapati in 1674 at Raigarh.UPPSC 2015RAS/RTS 2010UPPSC 2016
Shivaji's rise rested on three pillars: (1) the Hindavi Swarajya ideal, (2) the impregnable hill forts of the Western Ghats, and (3) the political vacuum left by the weakening of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar and the Mughals. He assumed the title Haindava Dharmoddharak (Protector of the Hindu Faith).WBCS 2018
Shivaji's Military Campaigns: Javali to Jinji
| Event | Year | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| First campaign — Javali | 1656 | Defeated Chander Rao Moray; first major territorial gain. |
| Battle of Pratapgarh (Afzal Khan) | 1659 | Afzal Khan was sent by the Adil Shahi ruler of Bijapur; Shivaji killed him.IAS (Pre) 2008 |
| First raid on Surat | 1664 | Struck at the heart of Mughal commerce. |
| Treaty of Purandar | 1665 | Signed with Mughal general Jai Singh; Shivaji surrendered 23 forts.UPPSC 2009 |
| Agra visit and escape | 1666 | Interned at Agra; made a daring escape.MPPSC 2005 |
| Battle of Salher | 1672 | Decisive open-field victory over the Mughals.UPPSC 2005 |
| Coronation as Chhatrapati | 1674 | Presided by Vishveshvara Bhatta at Raigarh.Coronation |
| Last campaign — Jinji | 1677 | Captured Gingee in the Carnatic. |
| Death | 1680 | Died at Raigarh. |
Shaista Khan was deputed by Aurangzeb in 1663 to crush Shivaji; Shivaji's night raid on Shaista Khan's camp at Poona became legendary.IAS (Pre) 2010 Shivaji obtained cannons and ammunition mainly from the Portuguese.SSC 2011 George Oxenden, the English Governor of Bombay, was present at his coronation. Of the forts surrendered under the Treaty of Purandar, Shivneri was never recaptured.UPPSC 2011
- Shivaji's meeting with Aurangzeb at Agra (1666) was not to attain Hindavi Swarajya; it followed the Treaty of Purandar and ended in humiliation and escape.UPPSC 1999
- Shivaji's first campaign was Javali, not Bijapur or Golconda.
- The Treaty of Purandar (1665) was with Jai Singh, not Aurangzeb or Shaista Khan.
Shivaji's Administration: Ashtapradhan, Chauth and Sardeshmukhi
Shivaji established the Ashtapradhan, a council of eight ministers.IAS (Pre) 1996BPSC 2019 Each minister headed a department, but Shivaji was not bound by their recommendations, and not all ministers held military commands.Ashtapradhan
| Minister | Function |
|---|---|
| Peshwa (Mukhya Pradhan) | Prime Minister; General AdministrationSSC 2004 |
| Amatya (Mazumdar) | Finance and AccountsFinance |
| Mantri (Waqia-Navis) | Home Affairs and Intelligence |
| Sumant (Dabir) | Foreign AffairsIAS (Pre) 1998 |
| Sachiv (Shuru-Navis) | Royal CorrespondenceIAS (Pre) 2001 |
| Senapati (Sar-i-Naubat) | Commander-in-ChiefUPPSC 2014 |
| Nyayadhish | Chief Justice |
| Pandit Rao | High Priest and Religious Affairs |
Other officials: Chitnis (royal correspondence), Wakia Nawis (court diary), Fadnavis (auditor), and Daftedar (record keeper).CDS 2002IAS (Pre) 2009
Revenue: Chauth and Sardeshmukhi
- Land revenue was assessed at about 40% of the produce in the later period.
- Chauth: one-fourth (25%) of the revenue from neighbouring territories, levied in lieu of protection from Maratha raids.UPPSC 2018SSC 2001
- Sardeshmukhi: an additional 10% levy claimed as hereditary rights.SSC CGL 2019
- Kurja-Patti (Tasti-Patti): an extraordinary levy equal to one year's income in times of financial difficulty.
- Upari: a category of tenancy tenure under Maratha rule.CDS 2015
Military Organisation
- Paga: state-paid standing soldiers.Paga
- Silhadar: temporary soldiers.
- A unit of 25 horsemen was under a Havaldar.Havaldar
- Ibrahim Khan Gardi organised the Maratha artillery.UPPSC 2008
- Guerrilla tactics were inspired by Malik Amber of Ahmadnagar.
- The Modi script was used for administrative documents.IAS (Pre) 1995
Shivaji's revenue system abolished the hereditary Deshmukh (zamindari) intermediaries and ordered cultivators to pay 10% directly to the state as Sardeshmukhi. Chauth was collected from neighbouring territories as protection money — a system that later became the financial backbone of Maratha expansion under the Peshwas.
Later Maratha Rulers: From Sambhaji to Shahuji
| Ruler | Period | Key Facts |
|---|---|---|
| Sambhaji | 1680–1689 | Son of Shivaji; continued resistance to Aurangzeb; captured and executed. His confidant Kavi Kalash was also executed. |
| Raja Ram | 1689–1700 | Third Chhatrapati; continued the struggle against the Mughals. |
| Shivaji II (Tarabai as regent) | 1700–1707 | Tarabai led the Maratha resistance against the Mughals from 1700 onwards.UPPSC 2008UPPSC 2012 |
| Shahuji (Shahu) | 1707–1749 | Released by the Mughals; capital at Satara; appointed Balaji Vishwanath as first Peshwa. The Treaty of Warna (1731) divided the state between Shahuji of Satara and Sambhaji of Kolhapur.IAS (Pre) 2003 |
After Shivaji's death, the succession struggle was between Sambhaji and Raja Ram.CDS 2015 The division of the Maratha Empire into different military commanders (the confederacy) took place under Shahu.JPSC 2003
The Peshwa Era (1713–1818): Transformation into a Confederacy
Under the Peshwas, the Maratha state became a confederacy of powerful semi-autonomous chiefs: the Holkars of Indore, Scindias of Gwalior, Gaekwads of Baroda, and Bhonsles of Nagpur. The Peshwas became de facto rulers, while the Chhatrapati at Satara remained a figurehead.
| Peshwa | Period | Key Achievements |
|---|---|---|
| Balaji Vishwanath | 1713–1720 | First Peshwa to gain real power; secured Chauth and Sardeshmukhi rights from the Mughals (1719); made the office hereditary.IAS (Pre) 2000 |
| Baji Rao I | 1720–1740 | Greatest military Peshwa; expanded into North India; defeated the Nizam at Palkhed (1728); followed the ideal of Hindu Pad-Padshahi; annexed Bassein and Salsher from the Portuguese.WBCS 2007Bassein |
| Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb) | 1740–1761 | Peak territorial expansion; shifted capital to Pune; suffered defeat at Panipat (1761).Nana Saheb |
| Madhav Rao I | 1761–1772 | Revived Maratha power after Panipat; defeated Hyder Ali (1764–67). |
| Narayan Rao | 1772–1773 | Murdered in a palace conspiracy. |
| Madhav Rao II (Sawai) | 1774–1795 | Minor; power held by Nana Phadnavis, called the 'Chanakya of Maratha Politics'.BPSC 2007 |
| Baji Rao II | 1795–1818 | Signed the Treaty of Bassein (1802); defeated in the Third Anglo-Maratha War; removed by Lord Hastings.CDS 2006 |
The Maratha Confederacy was a loose league of five great houses — the Peshwas of Poona, Bhonsles of Nagpur, Gaekwads of Baroda, Holkars of Indore and Scindias of Gwalior — each controlling its own territory and army while nominally owing allegiance to the Chhatrapati at Satara.
IMAGE (Map): Map of India showing the territories of the five Maratha houses in the late 18th century.
Labels: Peshwas (Poona), Bhonsles (Nagpur), Gaekwads (Baroda), Holkars (Indore), Scindias (Gwalior), Satara (Chhatrapati), and Odisha under the Bhonsles.
Caption: The Maratha Confederacy at its height.
Find it: Search 'Maratha Confederacy map 18th century' on Wikimedia Commons or use a standard historical atlas of India.
Third Battle of Panipat (1761): Causes and Consequences
The Third Battle of Panipat was fought on 14 January 1761 between the Marathas under Sadashivrao Bhau and the Durranis under Ahmad Shah Abdali.MPPSC 2014UPPSC 2012
Causes
- Mughal decline created a power vacuum in North India.
- Maratha ambitions to extend influence in the North.
- Abdali's desire to capture Kashmir, Multan and Punjab.
- Immediate cause: to avenge the expulsion of his viceroy Timur Shah from Lahore by the Marathas.IAS (Pre) 2018
Causes of Maratha Defeat
- Tactical errors by Sadashivrao Bhau.
- Superior generalship of Ahmad Shah Abdali.
- Presence of a large number of non-combatants in the Maratha army, hampering mobility.
- Ibrahim Khan Gardi fought loyally and died in battle; he did not commit treachery.CDS 2002
Consequences
- Maratha ambitions of succeeding the Mughals were shattered.
- The Mughal Empire was reduced to a shadow.
- The British gained an opportunity to consolidate in Bengal.
- Sikh power rose in Punjab.
- The 'two pearls dissolved, 27 gold coins lost' message referred to the Peshwa's disaster at Panipat.UPPSC 1997
- Kashiraj Pandit was an eyewitness to the battle.CGPSC 2003
- Ibrahim Khan Gardi did not betray the Marathas; he died fighting.
Anglo-Maratha Wars and Treaties
| War | Period | Governor-General | Key Treaty/Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|
| First Anglo-Maratha War | 1775–1782 | Warren Hastings | Treaty of Salbai (1782); Treaty of Purandhar (1776) earlier.CDS 2005 |
| Second Anglo-Maratha War | 1803–1806 | Lord Wellesley | Treaty of Bassein (1802) by Baji Rao II.CDS 2006 |
| Third Anglo-Maratha War | 1817–1818 | Marquis of Hastings | Peshwa Baji Rao II removed and sent to Bithur; Peshwa office abolished. Battle of Koregaon (1818) was part of this war.CDS 2006 |
Odisha Angle: Maratha Rule (1751–1803)
The Bhonsles of Nagpur under Raghuji Bhonsle established Maratha rule in Odisha after Alivardi Khan ceded the province in 1751.
- Sheo Bhatt Sathe was the first Maratha Subahdar of Odisha.
- The Marathas controlled the coastal tract (Mughalbandi) firmly and exercised loose control over the hill states (Garjats) through tribute.
- The period saw anarchy, repression and brigandage, though some historians argue the administration was relatively benevolent.
- The Marathas collected Chauth from Odisha and faced resistance from the Garjat chiefs.
- Maratha rule ended with the British conquest in 1803 after the Treaty of Deogaon, when Raghuji Bhonsle ceded Odisha to the East India Company.
OPSC asks about the Maratha period in Odisha. Remember: 1751 cession by Alivardi Khan → Bhonsles of Nagpur → Sheo Bhatt Sathe as first Subahdar → 1803 Treaty of Deogaon → British conquest.
IMAGE (Timeline): Timeline of the Maratha Empire from Shivaji's birth to the end of Peshwa rule.
Labels: 1627 (Shivaji's birth), 1656 (Javali), 1665 (Purandar), 1674 (coronation), 1680 (death), 1689 (Sambhaji executed), 1707 (Shahuji), 1713 (first Peshwa), 1731 (Warna), 1761 (Panipat III), 1775–82 (First Anglo-Maratha War), 1802 (Bassein), 1818 (Third Anglo-Maratha War).
Caption: Timeline of the Maratha Empire and Confederacy.
Find it: Draw a horizontal timeline using these dates; use NCERT Class 12 Themes in Indian History Part II for reference.
Practice Questions on the Maratha Empire for OPSC OAS
Consider the following statements regarding the rise of the Marathas:
- Religious consciousness and the desire to establish 'Hindavi Swarajya' played a role.
- The geographical security offered by the Sahyadri ranges was a factor.
- Political awakening emerged from the decline of the Deccan Sultanates.
How many of the statements given above are correct?
- Only one
- Only two
- All three
- None
Show answer
(c) - All three factors contributed to the rise of the Marathas. UPPSC 1992
Who among the following ministers in the Ashtapradhan of Shivaji held the charge of finance?
- Peshwa
- Amatya
- Sumant
- Pandit Rao
Show answer
(b) - The Amatya (or Mazumdar) was the finance minister in the Ashtapradhan.
The Third Battle of Panipat (1761) was fought between the Marathas and:
- The British
- Ahmad Shah Abdali
- The Mughals
- The Nizam of Hyderabad
Show answer
(b) - The Marathas were defeated by Ahmad Shah Abdali of Afghanistan. UPPSC 2012
In which year did the Nawab of Bengal, Alivardi Khan, formally cede Odisha to the Marathas?
- 1740 AD
- 1751 AD
- 1761 AD
- 1803 AD
Show answer
(b) - Odisha was ceded to the Bhonsles of Nagpur in 1751 AD. Testbook
Consider the following statements about the Maratha administration:
- The Peshwa was the Prime Minister in the Ashtapradhan.
- Chauth was a tax amounting to one-fourth of the revenue.
- Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of 10%.
How many of the statements given above are correct?
- Only one
- Only two
- All three
- None
Show answer
(c) - All three statements about Maratha administration are correct. Drishti IAS