India from 1919 to 1935: Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, Simon Commission, Round Table Conferences and the Government of India Act 1935 – Notes for OAS

India from 1919 to 1935 notes for OPSC OAS and UPSC cover the constitutional journey from the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms to the Government of India Act 1935, a period that shaped the federal and provincial structure of independent India. This page explains dyarchy, the Simon Commission, the three Round Table Conferences, the Communal Award and Poona Pact, the 1935 Act's provisions and legacies, and provides a complete list of Viceroys from 1858 to 1935.

Government of India Act 1919: Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms and Dyarchy

The Government of India Act 1919 was the codified version of the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, named after Edwin Montagu, the Secretary of State for India, and Lord Chelmsford, the Viceroy. It was passed in December 1919 and came into force in 1921.Constitution of India

• Declaration of policy: The Act declared that the goal of British policy was the gradual development of self-governing institutions with a view to the progressive realisation of responsible government in India as an integral part of the Empire.Constitution of India
• Dyarchy in provinces: The most important feature was the introduction of dyarchy in the provinces. Provincial subjects were divided into 'Transferred' subjects (administered by Indian ministers responsible to the legislature) and 'Reserved' subjects (administered by the Governor and his Executive Council).Constitution of India
• Transferred subjects included local self-government, education, public health, public works, agriculture, industry and excise.NYT Archive
• Reserved subjects included police, finance, and law and order.Archive.org
• Central government: There was no dyarchy at the Centre. The Governor-General retained control over reserved subjects like defence and foreign affairs.Constitution of India
• Legislature: The Imperial Legislative Council was enlarged and made bicameral for the first time, with a Council of State and a Legislative Assembly.Constitution of India
• Review clause: The Act provided for a review of its working after ten years, which led to the appointment of the Simon Commission in 1927.

Simon Commission (1927–1930): Appointment and Boycott

The Simon Commission, officially the Indian Statutory Commission, was appointed in 1927 to review the working of the 1919 Act and recommend further constitutional reforms.

• Composition: It consisted of seven British Members of Parliament, headed by Sir John Simon. No Indian was included in the Commission.
• Boycott: The Congress decided to boycott the Commission at its Madras session in 1927. The Muslim League led by M.A. Jinnah also boycotted it. When the Commission landed in February 1928, there were mass protests, hartals and black-flag demonstrations with the slogan 'Simon Go Back'.
• Lala Lajpat Rai's death: In Lahore, Lala Lajpat Rai, leading a demonstration against the Commission, was brutally lathi-charged and died later that year due to injuries.
• Recommendations: The Commission recommended the abolition of dyarchy and the setting up of representative governments in the provinces; it recommended the retention of separate communal electorates until communal tensions died down; and it proposed that the Governor should have discretionary powers related to internal security.

Nehru Report (1928): First Indian Constitutional Draft

The Nehru Report was the first Indian effort to draft a constitutional scheme for India, prepared by a committee headed by Motilal Nehru.

• It demanded dominion status for India.
• It recommended joint electorates with reservation of seats for minorities, rejecting separate electorates.
• It proposed a unitary and democratic centre with fundamental rights and adult suffrage.
• Jinnah's Fourteen Points (1929) were a response to the Nehru Report, demanding separate electorates and other safeguards for Muslims.

Round Table Conferences (1930–1932): Three Sessions in London

The British government convened three Round Table Conferences in London to discuss the future constitution of India, as recommended by the Simon Commission.Britannica

The result of these deliberations was the Government of India Act 1935.Britannica

Communal Award (1932) and Poona Pact (1932)

The Communal Award was announced by British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald in August 1932. It introduced separate electorates for the Depressed Classes (Scheduled Castes), in addition to Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, and Europeans.

• The Award assigned 78 seats to the Depressed Classes in provincial legislatures.
• Mahatma Gandhi opposed it as a divisive measure that would split Hindu society, and undertook a fast unto death in Yervada Jail.

The Poona Pact was signed between Gandhi and Dr B.R. Ambedkar in September 1932 as a compromise.

• Joint electorate: Separate electorates for the Depressed Classes were abandoned; they would vote in a joint Hindu electorate.
• Reserved seats: The number of reserved seats for the Depressed Classes in provincial legislatures was increased from 78 to 148 (some sources say 147).
• Central legislature: 18% of seats in the Central Legislature were reserved for the Depressed Classes.
• The system of reserved seats was to be reviewed after 10 years.

Government of India Act 1935: Provisions and Legacies

The Government of India Act 1935 was the longest Act of the British Parliament until 1999. It was split into two separate Acts: the Government of India Act 1935 (321 sections and 10 schedules) and the Government of Burma Act 1935.

Key Provisions

• Provincial autonomy: The Act granted a large measure of autonomy to the provinces of British India, ending dyarchy at the provincial level.
• Federation of India: It provided for the establishment of a 'Federation of India' consisting of both British India and the princely states. However, the federation never came into being because the princely states did not join.
• Dyarchy at the Centre: The Act proposed dyarchy at the Centre, dividing federal subjects into 'Reserved' and 'Transferred' categories, but this was never implemented.
• Bicameralism: It introduced bicameralism in six provinces out of eleven: Bombay, Madras, Bengal, Bihar, Assam, and the United Provinces.
• Direct elections: It introduced direct elections, increasing the franchise from seven million to thirty-five million people.
• Provincial reorganisation: Sindh was separated from Bombay, and Bihar and Orissa were split into separate provinces.
• Institutions: It provided for the establishment of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), the Federal Public Service Commission (FPSC), and the Federal Court (1937).

Enduring Legacies for Independent India

• Three Lists: The Act introduced the division of powers into Federal, Provincial, and Concurrent Lists, which the Indian Constitution retained as the Union, State, and Concurrent Lists under the Seventh Schedule.
• Strong Centre: Like the 1935 Act, the Constitution vested significant powers in the Centre, especially regarding legislation, taxation, and emergency provisions.
• Emergency Provisions: The concept of the Centre assuming control in exceptional situations, as allowed under the 1935 Act, was deepened under Articles 352–360.
• All India Services: The 1935 Act continued the tradition of a centralised, professional civil service, carried forward as the IAS, IPS and IFoS.
• Office of the Governor: The role of provincial Governors was retained, adapted for a constitutional framework.

Critical Departures from the 1935 Act

• Sovereign and responsible government: The 1935 Act envisaged limited autonomy under the British Crown; the Constitution replaced this with parliamentary democracy.
• Abolition of dyarchy: The 1935 Act proposed dyarchy at the Centre; the Constitution abolished it entirely.
• Fundamental Rights and judicial review: The 1935 Act had no mention of Fundamental Rights; the Constitution embedded justiciable rights and an independent judiciary.

Complete List of Viceroys of India (1858–1935)

The office of Viceroy was created in 1858 after the Revolt of 1857, when the British Crown took over the administration of India from the East India Company.

Odisha Angle: Constitutional Reforms and the Making of a Separate Province

The period 1919–1935 was crucial for Odisha, as the constitutional reforms of 1919 and 1935 directly affected its administrative status and its movement for a separate province.

• Government of India Act 1919: Odisha was part of the Bihar and Orissa Province, created in 1912. The 1919 Act introduced dyarchy, and Odia representatives began participating in provincial legislative councils.
• Simon Commission and Odisha: The Simon Commission visited India in 1928, and Odia leaders presented the demand for a separate province based on language. The Commission's report and subsequent discussions acknowledged the need for provincial reorganisation.
• Government of India Act 1935: The Act separated Bihar and Orissa into two separate provinces, fulfilling a long-standing demand of the Odia movement. Odisha became a separate province on 1 April 1936, with Cuttack as its capital.
• Provincial autonomy: The 1935 Act granted provincial autonomy, and Odisha held its first provincial elections in 1937. The Congress formed a ministry under Biswanath Das.
• Odisha's role in the national movement: Leaders like Gopabandhu Das, Madhusudan Das, and Harekrushna Mahatab linked the Odia movement with the broader national struggle, participating in the Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience Movements.

Practice Questions on India (1919–1935) for OPSC OAS